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Commercial  Raw  Materials 


COMMERCIAL 
RAW  MATERIALS 

Their  Origin,  Preparation  and  Uses 


By  CHARLES  R.  XOOTHAKER 

Curator  of  the  Philadelphia  Museums 


GINN  &   COMPANY 
BOSTON  •  NEW  YORK      CHICAGO  ■  LONDON 


COPYRIGHTED.   1905 


THE   PHILADELPHIA  MUSEUMS 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 


,  .,.■  t,;.«0*lCS 


PREFACE 


The  Philadelphia  Museums  are  sending  to  the  public  schools  of  Penn- 
sylvania a  series  of  collections  of  commercial  products,  charts,  maps  and 
photographs  illustrating  the  commerce  of  the  world  and  designed  as  an  aid 
to  the  teaching  of  commercial  geography  and  natural  science.  The  distri- 
bution is  made  under  state  appropriations.  The  collections  have  been 
graded  according  to  the  work  done  in  the  different  schools,  and  different 
series  are  furnished  for  primary  and  secondary  schools,  regular  high  schools 
and  commercial  high  schools.  The  standard  collection  comprises  twenty- 
fi\c  maps  of  commercial  distribution,  over  one  hundred  economic  photo- 
graphs and  over  three  hundred  commercial  products.  This  book  was 
prepared  primarily  as  a  work  of  reference  for  the  schools  in  connection  with 
the  use  of  these  collections. 

A  consideration  of  the  nature  and  uses  of  the  materials,  which  are  of 
economic  importance  and  on  which  the  business  of  the  world  and  the  life  of 
its  people  are  dependent,  is  a  necessary  part  of  the  study  of  geography  or 
commerce.  Until  recent  years  no  schools  in  this  country  have  systematically 
taken  up  the  study  of  the  products  of  the  world,  although  courses  along 
this  line  are  essential  parts  of  the  curricula  in  many  schools  in  Europe. 

This   book,  which   is  briefly  descriptive    of    the    origin,    processes    of 

preparation  and  uses  of  the  most  important  commercial  materials,  will,  it  is 

''  7  hoped,  aid  teachers  in  all  grades  whether  they  take  up  the  products  in  a 

special  course  or  only  refer  to  them  in  connection  with  the  countries  which 

■  produce  them. 

No  classification  of  materials  has  yet  been  devised  which  is  not  open  to 

;-   some  criticism.      The  grouping  adopted  here  is  into  substances  of  vegetable, 

"^    animal  and  mineral  origin.      The  plants  first  described  yield  foods  or  food 

accessories;  following  these  are  plants,  such  as  the  cocoanut,  which  yield 

both  food  and  fiber;    and  then  those,  like  the  cotton  plant,  which  supply 

^  fiber,  oil  and  cattle  food.      All  of  the  materials  obtained  from  one  plant  are 

grouped  together.      The  same  subdivision   is  used  as  far  as  possible  with 

substances  of    animal   and  mineral  origin.      This  classification  is  generally 

•"  found  more  convenient  and  better  than  the  separation  of  the  many  different 

^[jroducts  which  may  come  from  one  source. 


The  maps  of  distribution  show  by  their  shading  the  parts  of  the  world 
which  produce  the  largest  amounts  of  the  various  articles.  The  preparation 
of  similar  maps  and  charts  showing  the  amount  and  relative  imjwrtance  of 
the  materials  produced,  consumed,  exported  or  imported  will  be  found 
helpful  to  the  student. 

It  is  very  desirable  to  use  specimens  in  the  class-room,  in  order  to 
make  the  study  of  the  world's  products  clear  and  profitable.  It  is  of  great 
importance  for  every  school  to  accumulate  its  own  collection  or  museum, 
and  much  can  be  accomplished  by  the  pupils  as  original  work  in  the  course 
of  their  studies.  Specimens  of  many  of  the  world's  products  are  easily 
obtained  by  anyone.  Teachers  and  children  can  get  samples  of  many 
articles  from  merchants  and  manufacturers,  who  are  usually  glad  to  aid  in 
the  cause  of  education. 

Helpful  pictures  illustrative  of  such  subjects  as  agriculture,  lumbering, 
fishing,  mining,  manufacturing  in  different  iines,  or  transportation  in  con- 
nection with  the  products  of  various  countries,  are  published  from  time  to 
time  in  many  magazines. 

It  is  important  that  specimens  in  a  school  museum  be  carefully  and 
accurately  labelled,  and  that  they  be  classified  and  preserved  in  such  a  way 
that  they  can  be  easily  taken  to  the  class-room,  used  and  returned  to  their 
places. 

The  author  has  had  unusual  opportunities  to  become  familiar  with  the 
things  which  make  up  the  commerce  of  the  world,  through  close  contact 
with  the  Museums'  collections.  He  is  indebted  to  Mr.  S.  F.  Aaron  and 
Dr.  B.  H.  A.  Groth,  former  members  of  the  staff  of  the  Museums,  for 
valuable  assistance  throughout  the  work,  as  well  as  to  Dr.  William  P. 
Wilson,  Director  of  the  Museums,  for  his  helpful  suggestions  and  good 
advice. 

Free  use  has,  of  course,  been  made  of  many  standard  works  of  refer- 
ence in  compiling  information. 


11 


VEGETABLE  PRODUCTS. 


FOODS. 

In  most  countries  there  is  one  foodstuff  which,  above  all  others,  is  con- 
sidered the  standard  food,  a  food  which  the  rich  and  poor  eat  alike.  In  the 
northern  part  of  the  United  States  and  in  the  northwest  of  Europe  this  is 
wheat  bread  ;  in  northeastern  Europe  it  is  rye  bread  ;  in  parts  of  Ireland, 
potatoes;  in  Mexico,  "  frijoles "  and  maize;  in  southeastern  Asia,  rice; 
in  many  tropical  islands,  almost  exclusively  fruits  such  as  the  banana  or 
the  cocoanut.  Usually  the  foods  mentioned  are  the  principal  products  of 
the  respective  countries.  There  are  cases,  however,  where  foreign  transpor- 
tation is  so  cheap  that  it  furnishes  a  country  with  an  imported  standard  food, 
as  happens  when  salted  fish  are  sent  from  New  England  and  Canada  to 
some  of  the  West  India  Islands.  Besides  the  standard  and  more  important 
foods,  there  are  everywhere  many  others  of  more  or  less  importance  :  bever- 
ages, spices,  fruits,  etc.  It  is  impossible  to  distinguish  strictly  between 
important  foods  and  luxuries,  for  in  Venezuela,  for  example,  wheat  flour  is 
as  much  a  luxur)'  as  pineapples  are  in  Pennsylvania. 

Articles  of  Vegetable  Origin  Used  as  Food. 

For  anhnal  food :  grains,  fodder,  hay,  oil-cake,  etc. 

For  huma7i  food :  cereals,  aiid  cereal  products  (grains,  flour,  bran, 
oatmeal,  breakfast  foods,  macaroni,  etc.)  ;  starch  (from  grains,  roots,  etc.); 
sugar  (cane  sugar,  beet  sugar,  glucose,  honey);  vegetables,  fruits,  nuts, 
fresh  dried  or  preserved  (peas,  beans,  potatoes,  cabbage,  tomatoes,  apples, 
berries,  grapes,  pineapples,  oranges,  olives,  almonds,  chestnuts,  etc. )  ;  bever- 
ages (tea,  coffee,  chocolate,  postum,  etc.);  alcoholic  liquors  ;  spices  and  flavors 
(pepper,  ginger,  cloves,  cinnamon,  etc.,  extracts,  artificial  flavors,  condi- 
ments); vegetable  oils,  for  table  use  (olive,  cotton ,  etc. ) ;  medicines  (qui- 
nine, castor  oil,  etc.);  stimulants  (tobacco,  opium,  betel,  etc). 

Wheat    {Triticum   sativum,   var.    vulgare,  durum,  etc.)   is  the 

WHEAT     most  nutritious,  and  commercially  the  most  important  cereal. 

It  is  the  chief  grain  used  for  human  food  in  western  Europe,  in 

North  America,  and  by  the  white  race  in  South  Africa  and  Australia.     It  has 

been  cultivated  since  very  ancient  times,  and,  in  common  with  other  grains, 

was  referred  to  as  "  corn  "  before  maize  was  known. 

Wheat  thrives  best  in  temperate  climates  but  is  raised  even  in  the  cool 
mountainous  regions  of  the  tropics.  The  United  States  is  the  greatest 
wheat  producing  country  because  of  favorable  climate  and  soil,  the  use  of 
improved  agricultural  machinery,  and  economical  methods  of  handling  and 
transportation.  Wheat  is  handled  in  the  United  States  largely  in  bulk  ; 
it  is  loaded  loose  (not  in  bags),  on  cars  or  in  boats,  transferred  by  machinery 


COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 


FOODS  3 

and  stored  in  grain  elevators.  In  other  countries  the  grain  is  usually  stored 
in  bags  and  the  cost  of  handling  is,  therefore,  considerably  greater.  The 
European  countries  are  all  large  producers  of  wheat,  but  only  Russia  and 
Hungary  grow  more  than  they  need  at  home.  The  others  must  import  it 
from  them,  or  from  the  United  States,  India,  Australia,  or  Argentina. 

Wheat  is  classified  commercially  as  "hard"  or  "soft."  The  hard 
varieties  contain  a  large  percentage  of  gluten  or  protein,  and  are  suit- 
able for  making  such  foods  as  macaroni.  Soft  wheats  contain  more  starch 
and  are  used  for  making  flour.  Some  flours  are  made  of  a  mixture  of  hard 
and  soft  wheats.  Wheats  are  also  classified  according  to  their  color,  ' '  red  ' ' 
or  "white,"  and  according  to  their  season,  "winter"  or  "spring." 
Winter  wheats  are  sown  in  autumn  and  harvested  in  early  summer  ;  spring 
wheats  are  sown  in  the  spring  and  harvested  in  late  summer.  The  same 
wheat  may  be  cultivated  as  a  winter  or  spring  variety,  but  when  grown 
for  generations  as  winter  wheat  it  does  not  thrive  as  spring  wheat  and  vice 
versa.  Like  many  other  cultivated  plants,  wheat  has  developed  hundreds  of 
varieties,  known  to  growers  under  different  names. 

Wheat  is  ground  in  great  mills  where  heavy  steel  rollers  have  taken  the 
place  of  the  old  style  millstones.  After  grinding,  it  is  separated  by  sieves 
and  bolting  cloth  into  bran,  middlings  and  flour  of  different  degrees  of 
fineness.  Minneapolis  is  the  centre  of  the  milling  industr)'.  Grits,  starch, 
and  breakfast  foods  are  also  made  of  wheat.  Wheat  straw  is  plaited  for  hat 
making.  Leghorn  braids  are  made  in  Italy  from  the  stalks  of  wheat, 
gathered  while  green  and  bleached  in  the  sun. 

Barley  i^Hordeuvi  sativum,    var.    vulgare,  etc.)  is  chiefly  used 

BARLEY     for  beer  brewing    and  in  some   places  as    horse   feed.       It  is 

cultivated  in    north    and  central   Europe,   as   far    as  northern 

Norway  ;    in  Tibet,  northern  China,  Japan,  and  to  a  limited  extent  in  the 

United  States.      In  warmer  countries  it  thrives  only  in  the  mountains. 

For  household  use,  pearl  barley  is  used  in  preparing  soups,  gruels,  etc. 
In  Scandinavia,  barley  flour  is  used  for  making  bread. 

Malt  is  made  from  barley  (or  sometimes  from  other  grains)  by  spread- 
ing it,  wet,  on  the  floor  of  a  dark  room  where  it  swells  and  sprouts.  It  is 
then  dried,  screened,  ground  up,  boiled  with  hops,  and  allowed  to  ferment 
to  make  beer.  During  the  process  of  sprouting,  or  germination,  a  ferment, 
diastase,  is  produced,  which  converts  the  starch  of  the  grain  into  dextrine 
and  maltose.  Maltose  is  a  kind  of  sugar  and  this,  in  fermentation,  produces 
alcohol. 

Rye  (Seca/e  cereale)  is  the  chief  breadstuff  in  Russia,  Scandinavia 
RYE  and  parts  of  Germany.  It  is  cultivated  like  wheat,  in  "winter" 
and  "spring"  varieties,  and  grows  in  a  colder  climate  and  on 
poorer  soil  than  wheat.  Rye  is  one  of  the  grains  used  in  the  United  States 
for  making  whiskey.  In  Russia,  "vodka"  is  made  from  it.  Rye  straw  is 
long  and  tough  and  is  used  for  making  braids  for  hats,  and  to  a  less  extent 
for  making  ropes  and  mats,  and,  by  the  poor  people  in  parts  of  Europe,  for 


COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 


thatching.      Russia   is   the  greatest  producer  of    rye.      The   United  States 
furnishes  only  a  very  small  part  of  the  world's  production. 

Oats  {Arena  saliva)  is  most  important  as  horse  feed.  As  oat- 
OATS  meal  it  is  used  for  human  food  in  Scotland,  Ireland  and  other 
countries.  It  flourishes  in  a  cooler  and  moister  climate  than 
wheat,  and  is  grown  over  a  large  area.  In  this  country,  Illinois  and 
Iowa  are  the  greatest  oat  producing  States.  In  Europe  it  grows  most 
largely  near  the  Baltic  coasts  of  Russia  and  Germany  and  in  Ireland, 
Scotland,  France,  Austria-Hungary  and  Norway.  Russia  and  the  United 
States  grow  more  oats  than  other  countries. 

Maize  or  Indian  Corn  {Zea  mays')  is  largely  used  as  a  food  for 
MAIZE  live  stock,  the  bulk  of  the  crop  being  used  in  the  West  for  this 
purpose.  The  principal  corn  producing  States  are  Illinois, 
Iowa,  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Missouri,  Indiana  and  Ohio.  It  is  the  most 
important  human  food  in  some  sections  of  the  southern  United  States,  in 
Mexico,  Central  America,  and  in  parts  of  Italy  and  Egypt.  In  Europe, 
maize  is  little  cultivated  and  the  name  "corn"  is  applied  to  wheat,  oats, 
and  other  grains. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  maize  varying  in  size,  color,  and  compo- 
sition ;  some  are  rich  in  starch  and  others  in  oil.  The  numerous  varieties 
are  due  partly  to  the  influence  of  soil  and  climate  and  partly  to  the  efforts 
of  the  growers  to  develop  certain  characteristics,  such  as  the  large  or  small 
percentage  of  starch.  Two  types  are  distinct  from  all  others,  sweet  or  sugar 
corn,  and  pop-corn  ;  these  are  grown  in  relatively  small  quantities  compared 
with  the  total  production  of  corn,  and  are  used  entirely  for  human  food. 

(For  Corn  Starch,  see  Starch,  also  Glucose,  and  Grape  Sugar.) 

During  the  process  of  starch  making  the  germs  of  the  corn  are  separated. 
These  are  placed  in  coarse  cloths  and  pressed  by  machinery,  until  the  oil  is 
extracted.  The  material  remaining,  called  oil-cake,  is  used  for  cattle  food, 
and  the  oil  is  useful  for  soap  making,  lubricating,  burning,  and  as  a  substi- 
tute for  linseed  oil  in  paints.  Corn  oil  can  be  vulcanized  (see  Rubber)  and 
then  forms  a  substitute  and  adulterant  for  rubber.  The  actual  value  of  corn 
oil  is  greater  than  the  value  of  the  starch  itself,  extracted  from  maize.  Corn 
pith  is  used  for  packing  between  the  double  hulls  of  ships,  because  when  it 
absorbs  water  it  swells  up  and  thus  closes  a  hole  made  by  a  cannon  ball. 

(See  diagram  of  the  Corn  Plant  on  page  5. ) 

Rice  {Oryza  saliva)  is  the  principal  food  of  one  third  of  the 
RICE  people  of  the  world.  It  is  not  so  important  as  some  other  grains 
in  general  commerce,  because  it  is  largely  consumed  in  the 
countries  which  produce  it.  It  is  the  principal  crop  and  the  main  food  in 
southeastern  Asia  from  India  to  southern  Japan  and  in  many  of  the  islands 
of  the  Pacific.  The  United  States  prod  ices  in  the  southern  states,  chiefly 
Texas,  Louisiana  and  South  Carolina,  about  half  as  much  rice  as  it  consumes, 
importing  the  remainder  from  eastern  Asia. 

There  are  several  important  kinds  in  cultivation:  common  rice,  swamp 
rice,  upland  rice,  and  glutinous  rice,  besides  several  hundred  minor  \arieties. 


FOODS 


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COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 


The  crop  is  dependent  upon  a  bountiful  supply  of  moisture  and  a  warmer 
climate  than  is  necessary  for  other  grains.  It  is  grown  in  swampy  places  or 
else  in  fields  which  can  be  kept  flooded  during  the  period  of  growth.  Ex- 
tensive irrigation  has  made  it  possible  to  grow  rice  successfully  on  the 
prairies  of  Louisiana  and  Texas. 

Rice  with  the  hull  on  is  called  "  paddy."  After  the  hulls  are  removed 
by  rapidly  revolving  millstones,  the  grains  are  polished  or  whitened  by 
machinery.  The  grains  which  are  broken  in  cleaning,  although  they  contain 
just  as  much  nutriment  as  the  whole  grains,  sell  at  a  very  much  lower  price. 
The  hulls  are  sometimes  used  as  a  packing  material,  or  for  fuel  in  the 
factory,  and  the  rice  flour  or  "polish"  is  a  valuable  by-product  used  for 
cattle  food.  Rice  is  richer  in  starch  than  any  other  cereal  ;  the  starch  is 
extracted  in  much  the  same  manner  as  from  other  grains  (see  Starch). 
Rice  is  used  by  the  Japanese  in  brewing  their  national  drink,  a  beverage 
called  "sake."  Rice  paper  (so  called)  is  not  made  of  rice  but  from  the 
pith  of  an  entirely  different  plant,  although  paper  is  sometimes  made  of  rice 
straw.  The  straw  is  used  in  Japan  and  China  for  making  mats,  ropes,  bags, 
sandals,  rain  coats,  and  other  articles,  and  for  thatching  and  bedding. 

Buckwheat     {^Fagopyru7n   esculentuni)    although    not    a 

BUCKWHEAT  member  of  the  family  of  grasses,  is  usually  regarded  as  a 
cereal  because  its  seeds  are  used  like  those  of  wheat,  rye, 
and  other  grains.  It  is  used  for  feeding  poultry  and  for  making  flour 
for  buckwheat  cakes.  In  this  country,  New  York  and  Pennsylvania 
produce  two  thirds  of  the  crop.  It  is  cultivated  in  Russia,  France,  and 
Japan. 

Millet  is  important  as  a  fodder  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world, 

MILLET     and  the  grain  is  used  for  human  food  in  Japan,  China,  and  India. 
There  are    numerous    varieties   of    millet,    the    commonest    of 
which  are  European   Broomcorn  Millet  (Paiiicum  miliaceutn)  and  Fo.xtail 
Millet  {Setaria  italica). 

Sorghum  is  similar  to  millet.  Its  seeds  are  eaten,  the  juice  of  its  stalks 
yields  sugar  (see  Sugar),  and  Broom  Corn  {Andropogoii  sorg/ncm),  one  of 
its  varieties,  furnishes  the  stiff  tops  used  for  making  ordinary  brooms. 

When   a  plant  lays  up  reserve  food  for  future  use  it  usually 

STARCH  stores  it  in  the  form  of  starch.  Frequently  this  is  contained 
in  seeds  or  roots  for  the  use  of  the  young  plant  in  the  next 
generation.  In  each  plant  the  starch  grains  have  a  characteristic  shape  and 
size,  so  that  it  is  possible  to  identify  the  different  starches  by  means  of  the 
microscope.  Starch  is  an  important  human  food  and  is  mostly  eaten  with 
the  part  of  the  plant  in  which  it  is  stored.  From  many  seeds  and  roots  it 
can  be  easily  extracted.  The  common  starches  come  from  the  seeds  of  corn, 
wheat,  and  sometimes  from  rice  or  other  cereals  or  from  beans  ;  from  the 
roots  or  tubers  of  potatoes,  cassava  (tapioca),  arrowroot  ;  or  from  the  pith 
of  the  sago  palm  tree. 

The  process  of  separating  starch  consists  of  grinding  or  grating  the 
material  which    contains   it,  and  washing  with   water.      The  starch  is  not 


.A 


FOODS 


exactly  soluble  in  cold  water,  but  the  grains  mix  readily  with  it  and  are 
easily  carried  off  in  suspension,  so  that  the  water  with  the  starch  can  be 
strained  away  from  the  more  or  less  fibrous  pulp.  The  starch  settles  to  the 
bottom  when  this  milky  liquid  is  allowed  to  stand  for  a  time,  and  the  clear 
water  is  then  drawn  off  and  the  starch  dried.  This  process  varies  somewhat 
according  to  the  material  from  which  the  starch  is  to  be  extracted  ;  wheat, 
for  instance,  is  allowed  to  ferment  slightly  or  is  treated  with  caustic  soda  to 
dissolve  the  gluten,  while  maize  is  soaked  in  water  till  the  grain  is  softened 
before  being  ground  up.  When  starch  is  extracted  commercially  on  a  large 
scale,  the  factories  are  equipped  with  special  machinery. 

Corn  and  potatoes  furnish  most  of  the  starch  used  in  America  and 
Europe,  and  the  by-products  of  starch-making  are  useful  as  cattle  food,  for 
distilling  and  other  purposes  (see  Maize). 

Tapioca  starch  is  obtained  from  the  roots  of  the  cassava  plant 
TAPIOCA  {Mani/wt  utilissitna).  These  roots  contain  in  their  juice  a 
powerful  poison,  hydrocyanic  or  prussic  acid,  the  same  sub- 
stance which  occurs  in  the  leaves  of  the  sheep  laurel.  Fortunately  this  is 
easily  removed  by  thorough  washing  or  by  heating,  so  that  it  does  not 
remain  in  the  prepared  starch.  Starch  is  used  not  only  for  food  and  in  the 
laundry,  but  also  finds  numerous  industrial  applications,  such  as  dressing 
cloth,  sizing  paper,  making  paste,  etc. 

Even  more  important  are  the  substances  made  from  starch,  such  as 
dextrine  and  grape  sugar  or  glucose. 

Dextrine,  or  "  British  Gum,"  is  made  from  starch  by  roasting 
DEXTRINE     or  by  treatment  with  dilute  acids.      It  is  a  substance  with  pro- 
perties like  gum  arable,  and  is  useful  in  making  mucilage, 
for  stiffening  cotton  textiles,  for  giving  a  gloss  to  paper  and  cardboard,  for 
thickening  colors  for  calico  printing,  and  for  producing  a  ' '  head  ' '  on  beer. 
Grape  Sugar  is  prepared  from  starch  by  treatment  with 
GRAPE  SUGAR     hot  dilute  sulphuric  acid.      This  changes  the  starch  into 
a  substance  similar  to  cane  sugar,  but  not  so  sweet.    It  is 
a  very  important  material,  much  used  in  brewing,  and  as  a  substitute  for  true 
sugar  in  syrups  and  cheap  candies.      Chemically,  this  sugar  is  known  as 
dextrose.      Commercially,  the  name  glucose  is  applied  to  the  syrup  of  grape 
sugar.   The  same  substance  occurs  in  honey,  in  grapes,  and  in  many  other  fruits 
The  white  substance  often  seen  on  raisins  is  grape  sugar  formed  naturally. 

Beans  (Phascolns  vulgaris,  etc. )  are  a  common  article  of  food  in 
BEANS  nearly  all  countries.  In  the  American  tropics  "frijoles"  are  one 
of  the  chief  staples,  and  flour  made  of  beans  is  used  in  bread- 
making.  Beans  are  among  the  most  nutritious  foods,  being  rich  in  flesh- 
forming  constituents.  String  beans  and  marrowfat  beans  are  gathered 
green,  and  both  pods  and  seeds  are  eaten.  By  cultivation,  the  common  table 
bean  has  been  made  to  vary  in  size,  taste,  color,  and  composition.  The 
varieties  are  known  under  different  names,  such  as  haricot  beans,  French 
beans,  kidney  beans,  marrowfat  beans,  etc.,  but  all  are  derived  from  the 
same  ancestral  stock.      The  Lima  bean,  the  soja  or  soy  bean,  the  pigeon 


COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 


bean,  the  green  gram,  and  others  are  different  species.      Soy  beans  are  used 
in  eastern  Asia  for  making  bean  oil.    Some  beans  are  used,  in  making  starch. 

Peas  of  several  varieties  (Pisum  arvense,  sativum,  etc.)  are  im- 
PEAS     portant  as  foods,  and  are  cultivated  in  nearly  all  parts   of    the 

world.  Chick  peas,  or  "garbanzos"  {Cicer  arietinum) ,  are 
larger  than  the  common  pea  and  are  grown  in  Mexico,  Central  America  and 
southern  Europe.  Lentils  and  \etches  are  common  foods  in  many  parts  of  the 
world.      They  belong,  with  beans  and  peas,  to  the  group  known  as  legumes. 

Sugar  is  obtained  from  the  juice  of  the  sugar  cane  {Saccharuvi 
SUGAR  officinarian)  and  from  the  juice  of  the  sugar  beet  (Beta  vul- 
garis). The  sugar  from  these  two  sources  is  in  every  way 
identical,  and  is  not  different  in  sweetness.  Chemically,  this  substance  is 
known  as  cane  sugar,  whether  it  comes  from  cane  or  beet,  to  distinguish 
it  from  grape  or  other  sugars.  Two  thirds  of  the  sugar  used  is  now  derived 
from  beets.  Java,  Cuba,  Hawaii,  Brazil,  Mauritius,  Queensland  and  Lou- 
isiana are  the  principal  places  which  produce  sugar  from  cane.  Germany, 
Austria,  France,  Russia,  Belgium,  and  Holland  are  the  important  beet- 
sugar  producers. 

In  extracting  sugar  from  cane,  the  fresh  stalks,  which  contain  as  much 
as  90  per  cent,  of  juice,  are  crushed  between  powerful  steel  rollers.  The 
juice  when  pressed  out  is  heated  and  clarified  by  adding  a  little  lime,  and 
then  goes  to  the  e\aporating  pans  where  it  is  boiled,  usually  in  a  partial 
vacuum,  to  prevent  overheating  and  hasten  the  concentration.  When  the 
liquor  has  sufficiently  evaporated,  the  sugar  crystallizes  out  and  is  separated 
from  the  molasses  in  centrifugal  machines.  The  raw  sugar  resulting  from 
this  process  is  shipped  to  refineries,  most  of  which  are  located  in  the  United 
States  and  in  England,  where  it  is  dissolved  and  purified  by  treatment  with 
lime,  the  serum  of  blood  and  filters  of  bone-black.  L'pon  re-crystallization 
it  is  perfectly  white,  and  appears  on  the  market  as  granulated,  loaf,  or  pul- 
verized sugar.  Sugar  beets  are  usually  rasped  and  then  pressed  to  extract 
the  juice,  or  else  sliced  thin  and  soaked  in  warm  water.  The  juice  is  evap- 
orated and  the  raw  sugar  is  refined  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  corre- 
sponding process  of  treating  the  juice  of  tane. 

Rum  is  made  in  the  West  Indies  by  fermentation  and  distillation  of  the 
juice  of  the  sugar  cane. 

The  world  consumes  more  sugar  every  year,  and  the  percentage  of  beet 
sugar  in  the  total  product  is  steadily  increasing.  This  is  due  partly  to  the 
fact  that  beets  are  grown  in  densely  populated  countries,  where  the  sugar 
finds  a  market  at  once,  thus  sa\ing  the  cost  of  transportation  ;  partly  to  the 
fact  that  the  refuse  or  pulp  from  the  beets  is  a  \'aluable  food  for  cattle  ;  and 
partly  to  the  assistance  given  by  European  governments  to  the  beet-sugar 
industry  in  the  shape  of  bounties  to  producers.  Some  sugar  is  obtained 
from  other  sources,  such  as  maple  sugar  in  the  northeastern  L'nited  States, 
and  sorghum  sugar  from  the  stalks  of  broom-corn,  cultivated  in  northern 
India,  China,  and  Japan,  and  in  the  central  part  of  the  United  States.      The 


BEVERAGES 


sugar  from   sorghum   is  difficult  to  crystallize    and  is,  therefore,  generally- 
used  in  the  form  of  syrup. 

"Jaggery"  is  a  sugar  obtained  locally  from  the  juice  of  certain  palm 
trees.  Grape  sugar  is  less  sweet  than  cane  sugar  and  is  commonly  made 
from  starch  (see  Grape  Sugar).  Laevulose  or  fruit  sugar,  lactose  or  milk 
sugar,  and  maltose,  or  the  sugar  produced  in  malt,  are  not  of  general 
commercial  importance. 

Vegetables  and  fruits  for  table  use  are  important  in  local 

VEGETABLES     trade,  especially  in  the  neighborhood  of    dense  popula- 

and  FRUITS        tions,  but   do   not   play  as  great  a  part  in  the  world's 

commerce  as  less  perishable  materials.  Large  quantities 
of  vegetables  are  shipped  from  some  European  countries  and  from  islands 
which,  like  the  Canaries  and  Bermuda,  have  a  favorable  climate  and  a  situa- 
tion convenient  to  markets.  Refrigerator  cars  make  it  possible  to  ship 
vegetables  and  fruit  from  places  as  distant  as  California  and  Florida  to  the 
North  Atlantic  seaboard.  Oranges,  pineapples,  bananas,  cocoanuts,  and 
other  tropical  fruits  are  important  foods  where  they  grow.  Large  quantities 
are  shipped  from  the  West  Indies  and  Central  America  to  the  United 
States  and  Europe.  Apples,  both  green  and  dried,  are  among  the  important 
exports  from  the  United  States. 


BEVERAGES. 

Tea  is  produced  in  China,  India,  Ceylon,  Japan,  and  Java.  It  is 
TEA  cultivated  in  small  plantations  in  South  Carolina,  Jamaica,  Natal, 
and  other  localities.  Outside  of  the  eastern  countries  which  pro- 
duce it,  tea  is  consumed  principally  in  the  L^nited  Kingdom,  the  British 
Colonies,  Russia,  and  the  United  States. 

The  tea  plant  (^Thea  chinensis )  is  usually  kept  trimmed  down  to  a  small 
bush.  Only  the  young  leaves  are  picked.  In  some  countries  where  the 
plant  grows  rapidly,  the  pickings  are  frequent,  while  in  more  northern  dis- 
tricts the  leaves  can  be  picked  only  once  or  twice  a  year.  The  processes  of 
preparing  the  leaves  differ  considerably  in  various  places,  and  naturally 
result  in  teas  of  different  qualities  and  flavors.  In  general,  after  the  leaves 
are  picked,  if  they  are  to  be  made  into  black  tea,  they  are  allowed  to  wither 
and  ferment  slightly,  and  then  dried,  usually  over  a  charcoal  fire.  Green 
teas  are  prepared  by  drying  the  leaves  more  quickly  and  not  allowing  them 
to  ferment,  as  in  the  manufacture  of  black  tea. 

Teas  are  classed  commercially  according  to  their  color,  green  or  black  ; 
according  to  the  district  producing  them,  as  Japan,  Formosa,  Ceylon,  China, 
India,  Assam,  etc  ;  according  to  the  method  of  preparation,  giving  "Gun- 
powder," "Imperial,"  "Hyson,"  "Caper,"  etc..  Sun-dried,  Pan-fired, 
Basket-fired,  etc  ;  and  according  to  the  quality,  dependent  on  the  age  of  the 
leaf,  as  "Pekoe,"  "Oolong,"   "Souchong,"   "Congou." 

When  tea  is  treated  with  hot  water,  the  stimulating  element  ( theine  or 
caiTeine)  which  it  contains,  dissolves  readily,  together  with  other  constituents 


lO 


COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 


BEVERAGES 


which  give  to  the  drink  its  taste  and  aroma.  Tea  leaves  contain  also  tannin 
and  this  dissolves  out  upon  long  standing  or  upon  boiling.  Tannin  is  the 
substance  which  is  contained  in  many  barks  and  is  used  to  transform  skins 
into  leather,  and  when  it  dissolves  out  of  the  leaves,  gives  to  tea  a  bitter  taste. 

Verba  Mate  or  Paraguay  Tea  is  used  like  tea  in  Para- 
YERBA  MATE  guay,  Uruguay,  Argentina  and  southern  Brazil.  It 
consists  of  the  dried  leaves  of  a  tree  (^Ilex  paragiiayensis) 
of  the  holly  family,  which  grows  wild  in  that  part  of  the  world.  It  contains 
cafifeine  (theine),  the  same  stimulating  principle  which  is  found  in  tea  and 
cofifee.  In  collecting  mate,  branches  are  cut  from  the  trees,  dried  over  a  fire, 
and  then  the  leaves  and  small  twigs  are  pounded  to  a  coarse  powder.  It  is 
often  sewed  up  in  bags  made  of  the  skins  of  freshly-killed  cattle,  a  treatment 
which  the  natives  think  adds  to  its  pleasant  flavor.  In  some  large  factories 
it  is  prepared  more  carefully,  and  packed  in  kegs  or  cans  for  shipment.  The 
natives  of  the  lower  class,  who  are  the  chief  consumers,  prepare  the  tea  by 
pouring  hot  water  on  the  broken  leaves,  and  drink  it  by  sucking  through  a 
"  bombilla  "  or  metal  tube  with  a  sieve  at  its  lower  end. 

Coffee  is  grown  principally  in   Brazil.      Less  than  one  quarter 
COFFEE     of    the   world's   product  is   raised  in  other  countries,    chiefly 
Venezuela,   Central    America,   Java,    Me.xico,    and    the    West 
Indies.      The  United  States  uses  more  coffee  than  any  other  country. 

Coffee  is  the  seed  of  a  shrub  or  small  tree  {Coffea  arabica,  C.  liberica) 
which  is  usually  kept  trimmed  to  a  height  of  eight  or  ten  feet  for  convenience 
in  picking.  The  berries  when  ripe  are  bright  red  in  color  and  about  the 
size  of  a  cherry.  They  contain  two  seeds,  each  covered  by  a  thin  mem- 
brane (the  "silver  skin"),  then  by  a  thick,  tough  skin  (the  "parchment" 
or  "cascara"),  and  the  whole  enclosed  in  a  pulp  which  holds  the  two 
beans  with  their  flat  sides  together.  Some  berries,  growing  on  the  same 
plants  as  the  others,  contain  but  one  bean,  which  is  round  instead  of  flat, 
and  is  called  "pearl"  or  "male-berry"  coffee.  After  picking,  the  berries 
are  pulped  by  a  machine,  washed,  and  allowed  to  lie  in  tanks  till  the  adher- 
ing pulp  softens.  They  are  then  washed  clean,  and  spread  on  cement  or 
earthen  floors  in  the  sun  to  dry.  A  cleaning  machine  ne.xt  breaks  and 
removes  the  "parchment,"  which  has  become  brittle  on  drying.  Further 
cleaning  removes  the  "  silver  skin  "  and  polishes  the  beans,  making  them 
ready  for  market. 

The  principal  commercial  varieties  are  named  from  the  places  of  pro- 
duction or  shipment,  as  Mocha,  Java,  Rio,  Santos,  La  Guayra,  Guatemala, 
etc.  Mocha  and  Ja\a  coffees  may  be  grown  in  any  country,  these  names 
being  applied  to  coffee  having  a  flavor  like  the  kinds  which  were  originally 
grown  in  those  places.  Liberian  coffee  is  produced  in  many  countries  by 
the  Liberian  coffee  tree. 

The  characteristic  flavor  of  coffee  is  developed  by  roasting  the  beans. 
The  roasting  is  usually  done  near  the  place  of  consumption,  not  long  before 
the  coffee  is  to  be  used. 


12  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 

Chicory  roots,  when  roasted  and  ground,  are  used  as 
CHICORY  ROOTS  a  substitute  or  as  an  adulterant  for  coffee.  Some 
persons  tind  cofEee  harmful,  and  prefer  to  use  chicory 
or  some  other  substance,  such  as  roasted  barley,  to  make  a  drink,  since 
these  things  do  not  contain  caffeine,  the  stimulating  principle  found  in  coffee, 
tea,  and  chocolate.  The  chicory  plant  {Cichorimn  inly  bus)  has  a  pale  blue 
flower,  and  is  a  common  weed  along  roadsides.  Much  of  the  chicory  used 
is  imported  from  Germany  and  France,  but  there  are  several  factories  for  its 
preparation  in  the  United  States. 

Cacao  beans  are  the  source  of    cocoa  and  chocolate. 
CACAO  BEANS     Ecuador    exports   more    cacao   beans    than    any   other 
country.      Venezuela,     Brazil,    Mexico,    Trinidad,    the 
East  Indies,  and  Ceylon  are  important  producers. 

The  fruits  of  the  cacao  tree  (  Theobroma  cacao)  are  si.x  to  ten  inches  in 
length,  with  thick,  leathery  rinds,  and  each  contains  fifty  or  more  seeds, 
usually  called  beans.  In  some  places  the  seeds,  after  remo\al  from  the  pods, 
are  prepared  by  simply  drying  in  the  sun.  In  other  places  they  are  piled 
up,  or  buried  in  earth,  and  before  being  dried,  undergo  several  days'  fer- 
mentation, which,  it  is  believed,  develops  the  flavor  and  aroma.  In  com- 
merce both  the  unfermented  and  the  fermented,  or  ' '  rotted ' '  beans  are 
extensively  used,  although  fermented  beans  are  considered  the  best.  In 
the  trade,  beans  are  known  from  their  locality  of  production  or  shipment,  as 
Esmeralda,  Guayaquil,  Caracas,  Surinam,  Mexican,  Bahia,  etc. 

In  the  process  of  manufacture,  cacao  beans  are  first  roasted  and  then 
crushed,  breaking  readily  into  small  pieces.  The  shells  are  winnowed  out, 
leaving  the  fragments  of  beans  known,  coinmercially,  as  cocoa  nibs. 

Bitter  chocolate  is  made  by  grinding  cocoa  nibs  to  a  fine,  smooth 
paste,  which  is  moulded  in  cakes  ;  sugar  is  added  to  make  sweet  chocolate, 
which  is  often  flavored  with  vanilla.  Pure  chocolate  contains  about  fifty  per 
cent,  of  oil. 

Cocoa  powder  is  prepared  by  heating  and  pressing  cocoa  nibs  in  a 
powerful  machine  till  some  of  this  oil  or  fat  is  removed,  or  by  treating  choco- 
late with  alkalis,  which  act  on  the  oil  and  make  easier  the  mixture  of  the 
powder  with  water  or  milk  in  making  a  drink.  The  oil,  starch,  and  albu- 
minoids contained  in  chocolate  and  cocoa  render  them  very  nutritious,  and 
a  small  amount  of  theobromine  (which  is  similar  to  caffeine)  gives  them  a 
mildly  stimulating  effect. 

Cocoa  butter,  the  solid  oil  extracted  in  the  manufacture  of  cocoa 
powder,  is  very  important  for  the  manufacture  of  medicinal  salves,  since  it 
does  not  easily  become  rancid.  The  thin  shells  broken  off  the  outside  of 
cacao  beans  are  used  to  some  extent  in  making  a  beverage. 

Alcoholic  liquors    are    very  important    from   a 
ALCOHOLIC  LIQUORS     commercial  and  industrial  standpoint.      Wines 

of  many  grades  are  made,  mostly  from  grapes,  by 
fermentation  of  the  juice.  France,  Italy  and  Spain  are  the  great  wine 
countries.      California  and  New  \'()rk  uroduce  most  of  the  wine  made  in  the 


SPICES  13 

United  States.  In  fermentation,  sugar  is  changed  into  alcohol.  The  sugar 
may  be  the  natural  sugar  of  fruit  or  cane,  or  may  be  glucose  prepared  from 
starch  (see  Barley,  Malt,  and  Grape  Sugar  J. 

Fermented  liquors  yield  strong  alcoholics  by  distillation.  Brandy  is 
distilled  from  wine,  and  rum  from  the  fermented  juice  of  sugar  cane. 
Whiskey  is  distilled  from  fermented  grain,  generally  either  corn  or  rye.  By 
careful  re-distillation  pure  alcohol  is  obtained. 

All  parts  of  the  world  use  more  or  less  alcoholic  liquors.  The  favorite 
beverage  in  Japan  is  sake,  a  wine  made  of  rice  ;  in  Mexico  it  is  pulque,  the 
fermented  juice  of  the  century  plant  ;  in  parts  of  India  and  some  of  the 
Pacific  Islands  it  is  "toddy"  or  "tuba,"  from  the  sap  of  the  cocoanut 
palm  ;  and  many  other  countries  have  their  peculiar  drinks.  In  nearly  all 
civilized  countries  taxation  of  the  manufacture  and  trade  in  alcoholic  liquors 
is  one  of  the  important  sources  of  public  revenue. 

Hops  are  used  chiefly  in  brewing.  They  are  the  dried  fruits  of 
HOPS  the  hop  vine  (Humulus  lupiilus)  and  are  raised  in  the  United 
States  in  Califorriia,  Oregon,  Washington,  New  York  and  Wis- 
consin. They  are  cultivated  in  most  countries  of  Europe,  but  especially 
England,  Germany,  and  Austria.  Hops  are  added  to  the  malt  liquor  or 
"wort"  (see  Barley),  which  is  then  boiled,  and  afterward  fermented  by 
adding  brewer's  yeast.  After  two  or  three  days'  fermentation  the  beer  is 
freed  from  the  yeast,  placed  in  settling  tanks,  and  clarified  before  being 
placed  in  kegs  or  bottles.      Hops  give  a  bitter  flavor  to  malt  liquors. 


SPICES. 

Mustard  is  the  most  common  and  commercially,  the    most  important 

spice.      Several   plants  belonging  botanically  to  the  genera,   Brassica  and 

Sinapis,  produce  mustard  seed.      They  grow  in  most  parts  of 

MUSTARD     Europe  and  the  United  States,  as  well  as  in  Asia  and  the  East 

Indies.      The  seeds  vary  in  color,  being  black,  brown,  red, 

yellow,  and  white.     Black  and  yellow  mustard  are  the  most  important  kinds. 

When  the  seeds  are  pressed  they  yield  an  oil,  which  in   India  is  used  for 

burning  and  in  soap-making.     Black  mustard,  when  powdered,  produces  on 

mixing  with  water  a  very  pungent  essential  oil.      This  oil  is  not  formed  by 

white  or  yellow  mustard,  but  is  produced  in  larger  quantities  by  a  mixture 

of  the  black  and  yellow.     To  this  oil  is  due  the  pungent  smell  and  taste  of 

ground  and  prepared  mustard  and  its  inflammatory  action  on  the  skin. 

Pepper,  one  of  the  common  spices,  comes  mostly  from  Singa- 
PEPPER  pore.  The  two  kinds,  black  and  white  pepper,  are  produced 
by  the  same  vine  (Piper  nigruni).  The  berries  are  gathered 
when  they  begin  to  turn  red,  picked,  cleaned,  and  dried  for  several  days  on 
mats  in  the  sun,  or  in  bamboo  baskets  before  a  gentle  fire.  This  mode  of 
preparation  gives  black  pepper,  as  in  drying,  the  pulp  shrivels  and  turns 
black.  For  white  pepper  the  berries  are  allowed  to  ripen  on  the  vines,  and 
are  then  bruised  and  washed   free  from   the    pulp    before  drying.       Long 


14  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 

/ 

peppers,  the  young  fruits  of  a  similar  vine  {Piper  longum)  when  ground  are 
sold  as  black  pepper.  Pepper  is  one  of  the  spices  earliest  used  bv  mankind, 
and  although  now  a  commodity  of  but  small  importance  in  comparison  with 
sugar,  cotton,  or  coffee,  it  was  for  a  long  time  the  staple  article  of  trade 
between  India  and  Europe,  ha\'ing  a  \^xy  important  place  in  that  commerce 
at  the  time  of  the  disco\ery  of  America. 

Red  pepper  or  Cayenne  pepper  is  the  fruit  of  a  plant  {Capsiatm  species) 
of  a  different  genus.  It  is  grown  throughout  the  ci\'ilized  world,  being  used 
in  large  quantities  in  Mexico,  Central  and  South  America. 

Allspice  or  ' '  Pimento ' '    is  the  dried  unripe  fruit  of  a  tree 
ALLSPICE     ( Pinicnta  officinalis)  which  is  cultivated  chiefly  in  Jamaica.     It 
is  gathered   b)-  breaking  off   twigs  bearing  bunches  of  the 
berries,  and  drying  them  in  the  sun.     Its  extensive  use  as  a  flavoring  is 
due  to  its  cheapness.      The  name   pimenta    is  commonly  applied  to  pep- 
pers and  other  spices. 

Caraway  seeds  are  used  in  fIa\'oring  bread,   cakes, 
CARAWAY  SEEDS     and  liquors.      The  small  herb  {Carum  carvi)  which 
produces  them   is  grown   in    northern    and    central 
Europe  and  Asia  as  well  as  in  the  United  States. 

Cloves  are  the  dried,  unopened  flower  buds  of  a  tree  (Jambosa 
CLOVES  caryophyllus)  which  originally  grew  in  the  Molucca  Islands. 
Zanzibar  and  the  neighboring  island  of  Pemba  are  the  source 
of  most  of  the  commercial  supply,  although  cloves  come  also  from  Amboina 
and  near-by  islands  of  the  Molucca  group,  from  Sumatra,  Reunion,  Mauri- 
tius, and  other  islands  of  the  East  and  West  Indies.  In  Zanzibar,  each 
clove  is  picked  separately,  a  moveable  stage  being  used  to  enable  the  pickers 
to  reach  the  upper  branches.  In  other  places  the  buds  are  often  beaten  off 
the  trees  on  to  cloths  spread  beneath.  Cloves  are  used  as  a  spice  for  food, 
confectionery,  and  liquors.  Clove  oil,  obtained  by  distillation  with  water, 
is  used  for  the  same  purposes,  and  in  medicine  and  dentistry'. 

Nutmegs  are  the  kernels  of  the  fruit  of  a  small  tree 
NUTMEGS  { Myristica  fragrans)  which  is  cultivated  in  the  Banda 
Islands  and  other  parts  of  the  East  Indies,  in  Zanzibar, 
Reunion,  the  West  Indies  and  South  America.  The  kernels  grow  covered 
with  a  thin  shell,  which  is  in  turn  enveloped  in  a  bright  red,  lace-like  seed 
coat,  within  the  pulp  of  a  fruit  which  looks  like  a  small  pear.  The  red  seed- 
coat  when  dried  is  the  mace  of  commerce.  Nutmegs  are  usually  coated  with 
lime  to  give  them  a  white  appearance. 

Vanilla  is  produced  in  greatest  amount  and  of  best  quality  in 
VANILLA  the  State  of  Vera  Cruz,  Me.\ico.  It  is  grown  also  on  the 
islands  of  Reunion,  Mauritius,  and  Tahiti,  and  in  small  quan- 
tities in  a  few  other  places.  It  is  the  prepared  unripe  fruit  of  a  kind  of 
o\c\\\di(  Vanilla  planifolia').  The  Mexican  "beans"  are  slowly  dried,  the 
process  taking  several  weeks  ;  they  are  allowed  to  ferment  slighdy,  and 
during  the  time  of  curing,  the  flavor  is  developed.  Much  the  same  result 
is  arrived  at  in  a  more  rapid  manner  by  the  use  of  hot  water  or  calcium 


OILS ^^. 

chloride  in  other  processes  used  in  Bourbon  and  Tahiti,  but  such  beans  do 
not  bring  so  high  a  price.  Vanilla  and  vanilla  extracts  are  used  for  flavoring 
chocolate,  ice-cream,  cakes,  candies,  etc.  The  poorer  grades  are  used 
extensively  to  flavor  chewing  tobacco. 

Tonka  beans  have  been  used  to  adulterate  vanilla,  and  in  making  vanilla 
extracts.  They  are  on  the  market  now  only  in  small  quantity,  being  dis- 
placed by  cheap  grades  of  true  vanilla.  Vanillon  is  an  artificial  vanilla 
extract.  It  has  been  made  of  coal  tar,  but  is  now  manufactured  in  large 
quantities  in  the  United  States  from  oil  of  cloves. 

Ginger  consists  of  the  dried  root-stalks  of  the  ginger  plant 
GINGER      { Zingiber  offichiale) .      It  is  grown  in  most  tropical  countries, 

particularly  in  Bengal,  Cochin  China,  China,  Africa,  and  Jamaica. 
It  is  found  in  commerce  in  two  classes — "coated,"  and  "  uncoated"  or 
' '  peeled. ' '  Coated  ginger  is  produced  by  drying  the  green  roots  in  the 
sun.  Uncoated  ginger  has  been  washed  and  peeled,  or  scraped,  before 
being  dried,  and  is  usually  bleached  and  covered  with  lime.  Ginger  is  used 
as  a  flavoring  and  stimulant  in  foods  and  in  drinks  like  ginger  ale,  and  is 
often  preserved  in  syrup,  or  candied  for  use  as  a  sweetmeat. 

Turmeric  consists  of  the  underground  stems  of  a  plant  of 
TURMERIC     the  ginger  family  (^Curcuma  longa).      It  is  grown  in  south- 
eastern Asia  and  the  neighboring  islands.     It  is  an  important 
condiment  used  in  curry  powder.      In  solution  it  gives  a  beautiful  yellow  dye 
for  cotton  goods.      Tanners  use  turmeric  in  preparing  fancy  leathers,  and 
chemists  use  paper  colored  with  it  in  testing  for  alkalis  and  for  boric  acid. 

Cinnamon  is  the  dried  bark  from  the  young  twigs  of  a  tree 

CINNAMON      (  Cinyiamomum     zeylanic2un)     which    grows     in     Ceylon. 

Chinese  cinnamon  or  cassia  bark  comes  from  similar  trees 

which  grow  in  China,  northern  India,  and  other  places.      It  is  inferior  to 

the  true  cinnamon,  but  is  much  more  common. 

There  are  other  less  important  spices,  such  as  cardamom,  coriander, 
anise,  and  pistachio,  besides  many  things  such  as  sarsaparilla,  fruit  juices, 
and  extracts,  aloes,  and  essential  oils  used  for  flavoring.  Many  flavoring 
materials,  extracts,  etc. ,  are  made  artifically  in  the  chemical  laboratory. 


OILS. 

Vegetable  oils  of    many  kinds  are  used  for  food  and  for  cooking.      In 

this  country,  olive  oil  is  the  most  popular.      True  oli\e   oil  is  produced   in 

Mediterranean  countries    and    in    California.      It    is 

VEGETABLE  OILS     often  adulterated  with  oil  from  cotton  seeds.      (See 

Cotton. )      In  other  parts  of  the  world,  oils  obtained 

by  pressing  other  seeds,  such  as  peanuts  and  sesame,  are  extensively  used. 

(See  Oils  and  Oilseeds. ) 


i6  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 

MEDICINES  AND  STIMULANTS. 

Medicines   are   obtained   from    the    flowers,  seeds,  leaves,  i;ums,  twiys, 

bark,  or  roots  of  many  plants  and  trees.      The  crude  substances  which  yield 

medicines  are  called  drugs.     The  bark  or  other  part  of  the 

MEDICINES  plant  is  usually  ground  up  and  soaked  in  water  to  dissolve 
out  the  medicinal  principle.  Quinine,  sarsaparilla,  licorice, 
coca,  nu.x,  opium,  aconite,  arnica,  belladonna,  ipecac,  rhubarb  and  others 
are  familiar  examples.  They  are  obtained  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  and 
their  production  in  some  places  is  very  important,  as  in  Java,  where  most  of 
the  quinine  bark  comes  from.  Some  seeds,  like  castor  beans,  yield  oil 
with  medicinal  properties.  Some  substances  of  animal  origin  and  many  of 
mineral  origin,  such  as  salts  of  arsenic,  iron,  and  mercury,  and  other  com- 
pounds made  from  coal  t^r,  such  as  antipyrine,  are  of  great  medicinal  value. 
Medicinal  substances  and  prepared  medicines  are  an  important  item  in  both 
the  imports  and  exports  of  the  United  States. 

Tobacco    is    the    most    e.xtensively  used    narcotic.      It    was 

TOBACCO  originally  a  native  of  America,  and  has  spread  over  the 
entire  world  since  the  year  1600.  It  is  now  used  commonly 
not  only  by  civilized  peoples  but  also  by  savage  tribes  in  the  interior  of 
Africa,  and  by  Chinese  and  other  peoples,  in  districts  where  modern 
civilization  and  commerce  have  not  penetrated.  The  many  gradations  in 
the  quality  and  flavor  of  tobacco  are  due  to  differences  in  soil,  climate,  and 
cultivation. 

When  the  plant  (^Nicotiatia  tabacum)  is  mature  it  is  cut  and  hung  up  in 
open  buildings  to  dry.  The  ' '  curing ' '  of  the  leaf,  which  includes  a  period 
of  slight  fermentation,  gives  to  it  its  characteristic  odor.  The  fla\'or  of  nearly 
all  cut  tobacco  and  chewing  tobacco  is  altered  by  the  use  of  molasses, 
licorice,  vanilla,  or  other  substances.  Only  the  best  leaves  can  be  used 
for  making  cigars.  The  stems  or  midribs  of  the  leaves  are  used  for  low 
grades  of  smoking  tobacco  and  snuff,  for  making  sheep-dip,  and  for 
fumigating  greenhouses. 

The  varieties  are  known  commercially  from  their  localities  of  export  or 
production,  as  Havana,  Sumatra,  Mexican,  Turkish,  Virginia,  etc.  Much 
Ha\ana  tobacco  (meaning  tobacco  of  the  same  variety,  from  the  seeds  of 
Cuban  plants)  is  raised  in  Connecticut  and  elsewhere  in  the  United  States. 
More  tobacco  is  raised  in  the  United  States  than  in  any  other  country,  and 
over  half  of  the  product  is  exported,  mostly  to  England.  In  Europe  it  is 
cultivated  principally  in  Austria-Hungary,  Russia,  Germany,  Netherlands, 
Belgium,  and  Turkey.  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  Mexico,  Central  and  South 
America,  India,  China,  Java,  Sumatra,  the  Philippines,  Ceylon,  and  Cape 
Colony  are  important  producers.  Large  revenues  are  raised  in  many 
countries  from  the  taxation  of  tobacco. 

Oi>ium,    in   addition   to   its   medicinal   value,   as   the  source    of 

OPIUM     laudanum  and   morphine,   is  extensively  used  as  a  narcotic  in 

China  and  the  East.      It  is  the  dried  juice  of    the  white  poppy 

(^Papaver  somni/erum)  obtained  by  scratching  the  seed  capsule.      The  juice 


MEDICINES  AND  STIMULANTS  17 

exudes  in  small  drops  and  is  collected.  Its  production  is  an  important 
industry  in  northern  India,  China,  Persia,  and  Asiatic  Turkey.  The 
Chinese,  who  consume  more  than  any  other  people,  smoke  opium  in  small 
pipes,  and  it  is  taken  in  pills  in  Persia  and  Turkey.  The  government  of 
India  secures  a  revenue  of  over  $10,000,000  yearly  from  the  opium  trade. 
The  United  States  imports  opium  for  medicinal  purposes  from  Turkey. 

Areca  nuts,  sometimes  called  betel  nuts,  are  chewed  by 
ARECA  NUTS     the  people    of    India  and  by  the   Malays   and    Chinese 

throughout  southeastern  Asia  and  the  East  Indies.  The 
nuts,  the  seeds  of  the  areca  palm  tree  {Areca  catechu)  are  boiled,  sliced,  a 
little  lime  is  added,  and  the  mixture  is  chewed  with  a  leaf  of  betel  pepper. 
Areca  nuts  are  also  used  in  medicine. 

Coca  leaves,  the    source    of    cocaine,    are    mixed    with 
COCA  LEAVES     lime  and  chewed  by  the  natives  in  Bolivia  and  neigh- 
boring   countries.       They    come    from    the    coca    tree 
{Erythroxylon  coca). 

Kola  nuts  {Cola  acuminata)  are  grown  in  Africa  and  the 
KOLA  NUTS     West  Indies.      The  Africans  chew  them  for  their  stimu- 
lating effect.      Kola  wine  and  syrup  are  valued  for  their 
medicinal  qualities. 


VEGETABLE  FIBERS. 
From  leaves  and  leaf-stalks — (Manila  hemp,  agave  fibers,  New  Zea- 
land flax,  raphia,  palmetto,  etc.)  ;  from  the  bast  of  plants — (fla.x,  hemp, 
jute,  ramie,  linden  bast,  etc. )  ;  from  fruits — (cocoanut,  lufla)  ;  from  plant 
hairs — (cotton,  silk  cotton)  ;  artificially  prepared  fiber — (paper,  artificial 
silk);  from  whole  stems  or  parts  of  plants — (straws,  broom  corn,  Spanish 
moss,  rattan,  etc.). 

(For  animal  fibers  see  Silk,  Wool,  etc.,  and  for  mineral  fibers  see 
Asbestos. ) 

Many  fibers,  especially  those  used  for  ropes  and  brushes,  are  oiled  to 
make  them  flexible  and  tc  keep  them  from  becoming  dry  and  brittle. 

Manila  hemp  is  the  strongest  rope  fiber  in  common  use. 
MANILA  HEMP      It  is  obtained  in  the   Philippines    from    the    leaf-stalks 

which  form  the  ajjparent  trunk  of  a  tree  {Musa  textilis) 
of  the  banana  family.  This  tree  is  like  the  common  banana  tree  except  that 
the  leaves  are  a  little  narrower  and  it  does  not  produce  edible  fruit.  To 
obtain  the  fiber  the  tree  is  cut  down,  the  lea\es  removed  and  the  leaf-stalks 
separated,  and  scraped  with  a  dull  knife  till  all  of  the  pulpy  part  is  cleaned 
of!.  The  coarse  fibers  which  remain  are  then  washed,  dried,  and  made  up 
into  bales.  They  are  longer  than  any  other  commercial  fibers,  and  the  rope 
and  twine  made  from  them  do  not  harden  nor  stiffen  when  wet.  The  natives 
of  the  Philippines  use  the  finest  fibers  in  making  "abaca"  cloth. 


/ 


i8  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 

Sisal    hemp  or    henequen   comes   chiefly   from    Yucatan, 

SISAL  HEMP  where  it  is  the  principal  article  of  export.  It  is  cultivated 
in  other  parts  of  Mexico,  in  Central  America,  the  West 
Indies,  and,  to  a  small  extent,  elsewhere.  It  is  obtained  from  the  fleshy 
leaves  of  a  plant  (Agave  rigida.  var.  stsalana),  which  in  Penns)l\ania 
would  be  called  a  "  Century  Plant."  The  fiber  is  obtained  by  cutting  the 
leaves  and  scraping  the  fleshy  part  away  with  a  large  wooden  knife,  or  other- 
wise cleaning  it  by  machinery.  These  fibers  are  stifEer  and  less  strong  and 
not  so  long  as  those  of  Manila  hemp,  but  are  much  used  for  making  rope 
and  twine,  in  the  manufacture  of  sacking  for  cotton,  and  in  making  brushes. 

The    Agave    plant    or  Maguey,    in    this    country 

THE  AGAVE  PLANT  popularly  called  the  "  Century  Plant,"  is  a  native 
of  Mexico,  where  there  are  many  species.  It  is, 
perhaps,  the  most  useful  plant  which  grows  in  that  country.  Sisal  hemp 
(see  above)  is  one  of  its  products.  There  are  other  important  fibers  pro- 
duced by  agave  plants,  such  as  Tampico  hemp,  sea  grass,  maguey,  ixtle, 
lechuguilla,  pita,  and  yaxci.  Some  of  these  are  exported  and  all  of  them 
are  used  locally  to  make  articles  of  all  kinds,  such  as  mats,  bags,  ropes, 
harness,  hammocks,  hats,  baskets,  brushes,  etc.  In  their  native  home, 
agave  plants  reach  maturity  and  flower  at  an  age  of  three  to  fifteen  years 
according  to  their  species.  The  flower  stalk,  coming  out  of  the  centre  of 
the  plant,  often  reaches  a  height  of  thirty  feet. 

There  is  one  variety  of  agave  plant  which  is  cultivated  in  Mexico  for 
its  sap,  from  which  a  drink,  "  pulque,"  is  made.  When  the  plant  is  ready 
to  bloom,  the  central  bud  is  cut  out,  leaving  a  cavity  holding  a  couple  of 
gallons.  Into  this  the  sweet  sap  exudes,  and  is  removed  twice  a  day,  being 
sucked  into  a  long  narrow  gourd  and  emptied  into  a  goat-skin  bag.  It  is 
then  mixed  with  milk  and  a  little  rennet,  in  a  vat  of  raw  oxhide,  where  it 
ferments  rapidly  and  forms  an  intoxicating  drink.  "  Mezcal,"  a  stronger 
alcoholic  drink,  is  distilled  from  the  fermented  juice  of  another  kind  of 
maguey  plant.  Agave  plants  furnish  many  articles  of  minor  use  to  the 
natives  of  Mexico,  such  as  building  material  and  razor  strops  from  the  flower 
stalks,  soap  substitute  from  the  roots,  and  natural  needle  and  thread 
from  the  leaves. 

New  Zealand  fla.x,  another  excellent  rope  fiber, 

NEW  ZEALAND  FLAX       comes  chiefly  from  New  Zealand.      It  is  obtained 

by  scraping  away  the  pulpy  part  from  the  long 

narrow  leaves  of  a  plant  of  the  lily  family  {Fhonniian  tcnax).    Other  similar 

fibers  are  Mauritius  hemp  {Furcraea  gigantea),  bowstring  hemp   (Safisc- 

vieria),  pandanus,  yucca,  and  aloe. 

Pineapple  fibers  are  obtained  by  scraping  away  the 

PINEAPPLE    FIBER     fleshy  parts  from  the  leaves  of  plants  of  the  common 

pineapple  {A7ianas  saliva')  or  closly  related  plants. 

These  fibers  are  finer  and  shorter  than  those  from  agave  plants  and  are  much 

used  by  the   Filipinos  for  making  a  fine  cloth  called  "pifia."      In  China, 

Mexico,  South  America,  and  in  parts  of  Africa,  pineapple  fibers  are  much 


VEGETABLE  FIBERS  ig 


used  for  making  cloths,  ropes,  etc.  Through(5ut  Mexico,  Central  and  South 
America,  fibers  from  plants  nearly  related  to  the  pineapple  (Bromelia 
species)  are  used.  These  fibers  are  not  of  very  great  importance  in  the 
world's  commerce. 

Raphia  fiber  from  Madagascar  is  used  principally  by  gardeners 

RAPHIA       for  tying  plants.      It  consists  of  strips  of  skin  peeled  by  hand 

from  the  surface  of  the  leaflets  of  a  palm  tree  (Raphia  pedun- 

culata).      It  is  used  for  making  mats  and  basketry,  and  by  the  natives  for 

weaving   cloth.      A    similar    raphia    palm    yields    a    fiber    used    locally    in 

West  Africa. 

Piassaba  or  bass  is  a  coarse  stiff  fiber  used  for  making  brooms 
PIASSABA  and  brushes.  It  comes  in  lengths  up  to  four  feet  and  in 
diameter  from  one  thirtieth  to  one  sixteenth  of  an  inch.  The 
commercial  \arieties  are  known  as  West  African  and  Brazilian  (  Bahia  and 
Pard)  bass.  They  are  obtained  from  the  fibrous  sheaths  which  grow  around 
the  leaf  stalks  of  certain  palm  trees.  The  West  African  bass  comes  from  the 
tree  {Raphia  vinifera)  which  yields  the  leaf  fiber  referred  to  above.  The 
sap  of  this  tree  is  used  by  the  natives  in  making  wine.  The  Bahia  piassaba 
(or  piassava)  comes  from  a  different  palm  ( Attalea  ftmifera) ,  and  the  Pard 
bass  from  another  {Lcopoldiiiia  piassaba  ). 

Somewhat  finer  brush  fibers  are  obtained  from  the  leaf  sheaths  of  other 
palm  trees,  such  as  kittool  {Caryoia  urens),  Palmyra  fiber  or  bassine  (Bor- 
assiis  JJabellife}-),  Chinese  coir,  etc.  These  last-mentioned  fibers  come 
chiefly  from  Ceylon,  India,  and  China. 

Saw  palmetto  is  used  for  making  brushes,  and  for 
SAW  PALMETTO  mixing  in  plaster,  as  well  as  for  paper  stock.  It  is 
obtained  in  our  southern  states  from  the  leaf  stalks 
and  the  creeping  stems,  commonly  called  the  roots,  of  the  saw  palmetto 
palm  {Serowa  serndata).  This  plant  is  rich  in  tannin  and  is  an  important 
source  of  tanning  extracts.  The  fiber  is  the  spent  material  from  which  the 
tannin  has  been  extracted.  This  palmetto  grows  wild  in  the  Gulf  States  and 
its  leaves  are  utilized  in  making  the  artificial  palms  commonly  used  for 
decorations. 

Bast  fibers  occur  in  many  plants,  in  a  layer  underneath 
BAST  FIBERS     the  outer  bark.      In  small  plants  like  flax,  they  are  fin% 
in   texture  and  serve   to  strengthen   the  stalk,  while  in 
trees  like  the  linden  they  are  coarse. 

Flax  ranks  next  to  colLon  as  a  useful  fiber.  It  is  the  bast  fiber  of 
FLAX  an  herb  (Linum  ttsitalissimum)  which  grows  to  a  height  of  about 
two  and  a  half  to  three  feet.  Russia  produces  more  than  one  half 
of  the  world's  supply  of  flax,  but  that  from  Belgium  is  the  best  quality. 
Italy,  France,  Holland,  Ireland,  and  Egypt  are  the  other  important  pro- 
ducers. A  little  flax  fiber  is  grown  in  Michigan,  Minnesota,  and  the  Puget 
Sound  region.  Flax  plants  are  not  cut,  but  jiulled  from  the  ground,  so  as 
to  get  the  longest  possible  fibers.  The  seeds  are  then  remo\ed  by  ' '  rip- 
pling"   or  drawing   through   the   teeth   of    an   iron   comb,   and   the  stalks 


COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 


' '  retted. "  "  Retting  ' '  is  merely  a  process  of  slow  and  partial  decay,  which 
is  carried  on  by  soaking  the  stalks  in  water,  either  in  a  pool  or  slowly  run- 
ning stream,  or  by  laying  them  on  damp  meadows  exposed  to  the  rain  and 
dew.  The  fiber  remains  imaffected  while  the  other  parts  of  the  plant  are 
softened  by  this  treatment.  The  stalks  after  ' '  retting ' '  are  ' '  broken  ' '  by 
pounding  and  then  ' '  scutched  ' '  or  scraped  with  a  broad  wooden  knife  till 
all  of  the  woody  portion  is  removed.  '  It  is  then  "  hackled,"  or  combed,  to 
separate  the  long  fibers,  or  ' '  line, ' '  from  the  short  fibers,  or  ' '  tow, ' '  and  the 
long  fibers  are  prepared  for  spinning.  Most  of  this  work  is  done  by  hand  in 
preparing  the  best  grades  of  flax.  Twines,  canvas,  linens,  and  laces  are 
made  of  flax.  It  is  bleached  by  exposure  to  the  sun,  and  by  treatment  with  a 
dilute  solution  of  chloride  of  lime.  Flax,  especially  in  the  form  of  linen 
rags,  is  used  in  paper-making. 

Fla.x  plants  which  grow  till  the  seeds  are  fully  ripe  yield  fiber  of  poor 
quality,  but  the  seeds  are  then  richer  in  oil  ;  the  growing  of  fla.x  for  seeds 
is,  therefore,  a  separate  industry.  The  seeds  are  grown  extensively  in 
Russia,  India,  Argentina,  and  the  United  States. 

Linseed  oil  is  made  by  crushing  flax  seeds  and  then  pressing 

LINSEED  OIL  them  in  a  machine.  When  the  seeds  are  heated  and 
pressed,  more  oil  is  obtained  ;  but  ' '  cold  drawn  ' '  oil  is  of 
better  quality.  Linseed  oil-cake  remains  after  the  oil  is  extracted  from  the 
seeds,  and  is  a  valuable  cattle  food.  On  drying,  linseed  oil  forms  a  varnish- 
like substance.  This  property  makes  it  useful  in  paints  and  varnishes. 
Boiled  linseed  oil  is  prepared  by  heating  the  raw  oil  and  adding  to  it  certain 
substances  which  cause  it  to  dry  more  rapidly.  After  much  boiling  it 
becomes  thick  and  is  the  basis  for  printer's  ink.  Linoleum  is  made  of  lin- 
seed oil  mi.xed  with  ground  cork  and  gums.  The  oil  is  sometimes  vulcanized 
by  heating  with  sulphur,  giving  a  substance  much  like  rubber. 
Fla-\  seeds  are  used  in  making  poultices. 

Hemp   is  a  fiber  used  extensively  for  making  twine  and  rope. 

HEMP  True  hemp  is  the  bast  fiber  of  a  plant  (^Cannabis  sativa)  which 
grows  to  a  height  of  six  to  ten  feet,  with  stems  as  thick  as  a 
man's  finger.  Russia  produces  more  hemp  fiber  than  all  the  rest  of  the 
world,  but  the  plant  is  cultivated  throughout  the  warm  parts  of  Asia,  in 
Italy,  France,  Hungary,  Germany,  and  Algeria,  and  in  Kentucky,  Mis- 
souri, Illinois,  and  California.  The  fiber  is  extracted  by  retting,  cleaning, 
and  combing  in  much  the  same  way  as  flax,  except  that  more  of  the  work  is 
done  by  machinery.  As  in  flax,  the  long  combed  fiber  is  called  the  "  line," 
and  the  short  strands  "tow."  The  commercial  fiber  is  much  longer  and 
coarser  than  flax,  but  not  so  strong,  and  cannot  be  bleached  perfectly  white; 
it  is  therefore  unsuitable  for  weaving  into  fine  fabrics.  Hemp  is  known  on 
the  market  from  its  country  of  origin,  as  Russian  hemp,  the  strongest ; 
Italian  hemp,  the  finest  ;  Kentucky  hemp,  etc.  Many  other  fibers  coming 
from  plants  which  are  botanically  different,  are  called  by  such  names  as  Sisal 
hemp,  Tampico  hemp,  Manila  hemp,  Mauritius  hemp,  sunn  hemp,  bow- 
string hemp,  etc. 


VEGETABLE  FIBERS  21 


Hemp  seeds  are  pressed  like  flax  seeds  and  yield  hemp  oil,  which  is 
similar  in  nature  to  linseed  oil  and  is  used  in  soap-making  and  in  paint.  An 
extract  from  the  leaves  is  used  as  an  intoxicant  (hasheesh)  in  Arabia. 

Jute  comes  almost  entirely  from  the  province  of  Bengal,  India.     It 

JUTE     is  the  bast  fiber  of  plants  (Corc/ioriis  species)  which  grow  in  tall 

slender  stalks  like  hemp.     It  is  separated  from  the  stalk  like  hemp, 

by  retting  and  cleaning.      The  fiber  is  long  and  lustrous,  soft,  and  easy  to 

spin  into  coarse  threads.      It  is  much  weaker  than  hemp,  difficult  to  spin 

into  fine  threads,  does  not  bleach  well,  and  loses  in  strength  when  exposed 

to  dampness.      It  is  used  for  making  burlap  and  gunny  cloths,  twines  and 

ropes,  as  well  as  in  carpets,  curtains,  and  upholstery  fabrics,  such  as  plushes. 

Jute  butts  are  the  short  ends  of  the  stalks  and  the  rough 

JUTE  BUTTS     fibers  rejected  in  preparing  jute.    They  are  very  important 

paper  stock,  being  imported  in  large  amount. 

Ramie  or  China  grass  is  a  fiber  of  increasing  importance.      It  grows  in 

southeastern   Asia  and  is   cultivated   in   small   amounts    in    Mediterranean 

countries  and   other  parts  of  the  world.      The  plant  {Roehmeria 

RAMIE     nivea)  belongs  to  the  nettle  family  and  grows  in  tall  slender  stalks 

like  hemp.     The  bast  fiber  is  difficult  to  separate  from  the  bark, 

owing  to  the  presence  of  a  gummy  substance  insoluble  in  water.      It  has  been 

used  for  a  long  time  in  China,  where  it  is  prepared  in  a  slow  and  imperfect 

way.      Improvements  in  machinery  and  in  the  chemical  process  of  cleaning 

the  fiber  are  making  it  possible  to  utilize  it  in  Europe  and  America.      The 

clean  fiber  is  fine  and  silky ;  its  strength  is  three  times  that  of  Russian  hemp, 

and  its  weight  only  a  little  over  half  that  of  linen.      It  is  a  very  valuable 

cordage  fiber,  and  is  extensively  used  in  China  for  making  ' '  grass  cloth. 

In  Europe  it  is  made  into  fabrics,  some  of  which  closely  resemble  silk,  into 

underwear,  velvets,  and  various  cloths.      It  will  come  into  more  general  use 

when  cheaper  methods  of  cleaning  it  are  devised. 

Bast  fibers  from  other  plants  are  extracted  and  used  in 
BAST  FIBER  \arious  parts  of  the  world  ;  but  few  of  these  are  of  any 
general  importance.  Sunn  hemp  {Crotalaria  junced)  is 
grown  in  India.  The  common  European  linden  or  lime  tree  has  a  bast 
which  is  easily  stripped  off  and  is  employed  by  peasants  for  making  ropes, 
mats,  bags,  hats,  etc.  The  American  linden  or  bass  wood  tree  contains  a 
fiber  of  the  same  kind.  A  beautiful  material  called  Cuba  bast  is  obtained  in 
sheets  from  a  tree  { Hibiscus elatits)  in  the  West  Indies.  It  is  used  like  braid 
in  making  hats  and  for  tying  bundles  of  cigars.  Lace  bark  is  the  bast  of 
another  West  Indian  tree  {Lagetta  lintearia).  The  paper  mulberrj'  tree 
{Bronsso7iettia  papyri/era)  furnishes  a  bast  used  in  paper  making  and,  by 
natives  in  Oceania,  for  making  bark  cloth  (  "  tapa  "). 

The  cocoanut  palm  is,  in  the  countries  where  it  grows, 
THE  COCOANUT     one  of  the  most  useful  plants,  in  fact  in  many  islands 
PALM  it  is  looked  upon  as  the  one  thing  necessary  to  exist- 

ence.     Cocoanut  palms  (Cocos  ntuifera)  grow  in  the 
coast   regions  of  all   tropical   countries,   frequently  reaching  a  height  oi  a 


22 


COMMERCIAL  KAW  MATKRIALS 


VEGETABLE  FIBERS  23 


hundred  feet,  with  a  crown  of  twenty  or  more  feathery  lea\es,  each  twelve 
or  fifteen  feet  long.  The  fruits,  cocoanuts,  are  produced  from  the  time  the 
tree  is  five  or  six  years  old,  sometimes  for  sixty  or  more  years.  A  tree  in  full 
bearing  will  ripen  from  eighty  to  two  hundred  nuts  a  year.  Each  nut  is 
enclosed  in  a  thick  fibrous  husk.  The  unripe  nut  is  lined  with  a  soft  edible 
albumen-like  jelly,  within  which  are  one  or  two  pints  of  a  clear  liriuid, 
which  is  refreshing  and  nourishing.  When  the  nut  ripens,  the  albumen  or 
kernel  hardens  and  is  used  for  food.  It  is  often  grated,  dried,  and  sold  as 
desiccated  cocoanut.  Fresh  cocoanuts  are  imported  into  the  United  States 
from  the  West  Indies,  Central  America,  and  Colombia,  and  are  grown  in 
Florida  and  California. 

The  ripe  kernels  when  dried  in  the  sun  are  called  "copra"  and  are 
pressed  to  obtain  cocoanut  oil.      Copra  is  one  of  the  principal  exports  from 
the  islands  of  the  Pacific  and  from  other  places  where  the  tree  is  common. 
Cocoanut  oil  is  used  throughout  southern  and  south- 

COCOANUT  OIL  eastern  Asia  and  the  adjacent  islands  as  a  cooking  and 
illuminating  oil,  as  well  as  for  anointing  the  body,  and 
for  minor  purposes.  For  lighting,  the  natives  put  it  into  a  small  dish  or 
open  vessel  and  dip  in  it  a  piece  of  cotton  or  loosely  twisted  fiber,  one  end 
of  which  extends  over  the  edge  of  the  dish  and  is  lighted.  In  Europe  and 
America  it  is  used  for  making  soap  and  candles  and  for  cooking.  Cocoanut 
oil  is  liquid  at  temperatures  above  65°  F.  Below  this  it  is  a  white  solid, 
much  like  lard  in  appearance.  In  Ceylon  and  other  hot  countries  it  can  be 
pressed  from  cocoanut  kernels  without  the  aid  of  artificial  heat,  but  in  tem- 
perate climates  copra  must  be  heated  when  the  oil  is  extracted.  The  copra 
is  pressed  i-ither  in  crude  native  mills  or  else  in  powerful  machines,  which 
squeeze  out  the  oil,  leaving  behind  cocoanut  oil  cake,  useful  for  cattle  food. 

Cocoanut  shells  are  made  into  cups,  ladles,  and  other  utensils  by  natives. 
The  trunk  of  the  old  cocoanut  tree  furnishes  wood  which  is  used  for  house- 
building, for  cabinet  work,  tool  handles,  and  other  articles,  and  is  known  in 
commerce  as  porcupine  wood.  The  bark  is  used  for  tanning,  the  roots  for 
medicine,  the  tender  terminal  bud  is  bcjiled  and  eaten  as  a  vegetable,  and  the 
leaves  are  used  for  thatching,  for  making  fans,  mats,  and  baskets.  The  leaf 
sheaths  are  fibrous  and  are  used  by  the  natives  like  cloth,  and  by  florists  for 
ornament.  The  sap  obtained  by  cutting  a  gash  in  the  flower  bud,  when 
boiled  down  gives  coarse  brown  sugar  called  ' '  jaggery. ' '  The  juice  fer- 
ments rapidly,  forming  "toddy"  or  "tuba,"  an  intoxicating  palm  wine, 
which  can  be  converted  into  vinegar.  "  Arrack  "  is  a  stronger  liquor  dis- 
tilled from  toddy. 

Cocoanut  fiber  or  coir  is  obtained  from  the  thick 

COCOANUT  FIBER  outer  husk  of  the  nut.  The  husks,  after  removal, 
are  soaked  in  water  till  sufficiently  softened,  and 
then  the  fibers  are  separated  from  each  other,  combed,  and  cleaned.  Com- 
mercial coir  fibers  are  rather  coarse,  stiff,  and  very  elastic  brown  filaments. 
The  best  grades  are  straight,  and  up  to  ten  inches  long.  The  stiffest  are 
used  for  making  brushes ;  the  longest  and  straightest  for  ropes  of  all  sizes, 


24 


COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 


coarse  thread,  and  cocoa  matting;  and  the  shorter  curly  fibers  for  stuffing. 
Coir  ropes  are  valued  because  they  are  strong,  elastic,  and  not  affected 
by  salt  water. 


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VEGETABLE  FIBERS 


Luffas,  or  vegetable  sponges,  are  the  cleaned  fibrous  jiarts   of 

LUFFA       the  ri{)e  fruit  of  the  dish  rag  vine  (Ljiffa  species)  of  the  gourd 

family.      They  are  exported  from  Japan. 

Oakum  is  prepared  from  the  short  waste  fibers  obtained  Ijy  ])icking  to 

pieces  old  cordage.      It  is  treated  with  tar  to  make  it  flexible  and  is  used 

to  caulk  the  seams  of  vessels.     When  specially  prepared  to  make 

OAKUM     it  antiseptic,  it  is  employed  in  surgery  for  dressing  wounds. 

Cotton,  tht-  most  important  vegetable  fiber,  consists  of  the 
seed  hairs  of  the  cotton  plant  (Gossj'piiim  species).      It  is  cultivated  in  most 
tropical  and  suljtropical  countries,  and  has  been  used  since  the  most  ancient 
limes.      About  three   fourths  of  all  the  cotton  produced  an- 
COTTON     nually  is  grown  in  the  south  Atlantic  and  Gulf-  states  of  the 
United  States.      India,  Egypt,  China,  Brazil,  and  Asiatic  Rus- 
sia are  important  producers. 

The  individual  cotton  fiber  is  a  single,  elongated,  flat,  twisted  cell,  which 
grows  out  from  the  seed.  It  is  not  a  bundle  of  cells,  as  in  the  case  of  fibers 
of  flax,  hemp,  and  other  basts.  The  fibers  \ary  in  length  in  different  culti- 
vated varieties,  thus  -Sea  Island  cotton  has  the  longest  staple,  from  an  inch 
and  three  fourths  to  a  little  over  two  inches;  Egyptian  cotton  fibers  are  alxuit 
an  inch  and  a  half  long;  Brazilian  cotton  is  a  little  shorter;  American  up- 
land cotton,  the  most  common  variety  grown,  has  a  staple  of  about  an  inch; 
and  Indian  cotton  is  still  shorter.  Sea  Island  cotton  grows  along  the  Atlan- 
tic coast  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia  and  on  the  adjacent  islands.  It  is 
used  for  making  the  finest  yarns,  threads,  laces,  and  cambrics.  Rough 
Peruvian  cotton  closely  resembles  wool  and  is  used  for  mixing  in  woolen 
fabrics.  Egyptian  cotton,  on  accoimt  of  its  long  staple,  is  imported  to  this 
country  in  considerable  amount,  being  used  for  fine  yarns  and  goods,  espe- 
ciallv  in  hosierv  and  underwear. 


THE 

COTTON 

PLANT 


Cotton 


Seed  . 


.  Stalk 


Yarn 


Batting 
Absorbent  cotton 

Nitro-cellulose 

Cattle  food 

Oil 


/  Rope 


Fabrics  (muslin,  calico,  gingham,  etc.) 


I    Explosives  (gun  cotton,  etc.) 
■    Celluloid 
(  Artificial  silk 

Table  oil 

Fat  for  cooking 

Soap,  candles,  etc. 


Oil  cake — meal  (cattle  food  and  fertilizer) 
Hulls  (paper  stock,  cattle  food,  fuel,  fertilizer) 
Linters,  for  cheap  yarns,  batting  and  nitro-cellulose 

Can  be  used  for  paper  making  and  contains  a  bast  fiber 


The  cotton  plant  usually  grows  to  a  height  of  only  two  to  four  feet,  but 
in  places  free  from  frost  some  varieties  grow  fifteen  feet  high.  After  cotton 
is  picked  from  the  bolls  by  hand,  it  is  ginned,  or  freed  from  the  seeds.      In 


26 


COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 


VEGETABLE  FIBERS 


27 


a  cotton  gin,  seed  cotton  is  held  in  a  box  with  a  grating  at  one  side.  Through 
this  grating  project  a  number  of  steel  discs,  notched  on  the  edges  and  called 
saws.  When  the  saws  rotate,  the  fiber  catches  in  the  teeth  and  is  pulled 
away  from  the  seeds.  The  fiber  is  blown  from  the  saws  through  pipes,  to  a 
cotton  press,  where  it  is  baled.  Raw  cotton  in  bales  is  shipped  from  the 
gins  and  market  towns  to  the  cotton  mills.  Liverpool,  the  largest  foreign 
cotton  market,  practically  sets  the  price  for  cotton  the  world  over.  The 
greatest  centers  of  cotton  manufacture  are  located  in  Lancashire,  England; 
the  New  England  states,  the  Carolinas,  and  Georgia.  Germany,  Russia, 
India,  Japan,  France,  and  other  European  countries  are  also  important 
cotton  consumers. 

Within  the  past  one  hundred  and  twenty  years  the  manufacture  of  cot- 
ton has  progressed  from  the  condition  where  the  work  was  done  almost 
entirely  by  hand,  to  the  present  state,  where  it  is  better  done  by  perfected 
machinery.  In  a  mill,  the  cotton  bales  are  opened  by  a  machine,  and  the 
fibers  pulled  apart  and  spread  out.  In  various  other  machines,  they  are 
picked  and  cleaned  from  all  dirt  and  leaves,  and  carded  by  passing  through 
rollers  covered  with  steel  wire  points,  which  comb  the  fibers  so  that  they  lie 
parallel.  The  fibers  are  first  loosely  twisted  into  a  "roving,"  which  is 
wound  on  spools  and  from  these  is  spun  by  a  "  mule  jenny  ' '  into  yarn  or 
thread.  Yarns  are  woven  in  power  looms  into  cloths  of  different  kinds  and 
qualities,  such  as  muslin,  silesia,  cheesecloth,  cambric,  duck,  canton  flannel, 
India  linon,  etc.  Calico  is  made  by  printing  designs  on  plain  cotton  goods. 
Gingham  is  woven  of  cotton  threads  of  different  colors.  Cotton  threads  are 
frequently  woven  with  threads  of  silk  or  wool  into  mixed  goods.  When 
cotton  is  "mercerized"  (treated  with  a  solution  of  caustic  soda)  the  fibers 
shrink  somewhat,  become  stronger,  are  easier  to  dye,  and  acquire  a  silky 
luster.  This  treatment  is  applied  to  cotton  either  in  the  yarn  or  cloth,  usually 
the  former,  and  results  in  beautiful  glossy  fabrics.  Other  fibers,  such  as  flax, 
are  sometimes  mercerized.  Cotton  fabrics  are  often  stiffened  and  gi\en 
"body"  by  starch,  dextrine,  or  gum  arabic. 

When  cotton  is  ginned,  many  short  fibers  remain  attached  to  the  seeds. 
These,  down  to  the  very  shortest,  are  removed  by  special  gins  and  consti- 
tute "linters,"  which  are  used  for  mi.xing  with  other  cotton  in  spinning 
cheap  yarns,  and  for  making  into  wadding. 

Cotton  seeds,  after  the  fiber  is  cleaned  from  them  by 
COTTON  SEEDS  the  gin,  are  hulled,  and  the  meats  or  kernels  are  ground 
up  and  pressed  by  hydraulic  machinery,  yielding  fif- 
teen to  twenty  per  cent,  of  oil.  The  hulls  are  used  for  fuel,  for  paper-making 
and  for  feeding  stock.  The  oil  is  purified  by  the  addition  of  a  small  amount 
of  alkali,  usually  caustic  potash,  and  is  used  for  food  and  for  cooking,  as  a 
substitute  or  adulterant  for  olive  oil,  in  making  oleomargarine,  for  soap  mak- 
ing, candle  making,  lubricating,  etc.  The  addition  of  the  alkali  causes  the 
impurities  and  coloring  matters  to  sink  to  the  bottom  with  some  saponified 
oil,  which  is  called  ' '  crude  cotton  oil  foots  ' '  and  is  the  base  of  some  soaps. 
After  the  oil  is  pressed  from  cotton-seed  kernels,  the  remaining  material  has 


28  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 

the  lurin  of  hard  sheets  less  than  an  inch  thick,  called  oil-cake  or  press-cake. 
These  are  ground  up  into  meal,  which  is  used  for  feeding  cattle,  and  as  a 
fertilizer.  The  cotton  seeds  themselves  are  used  in  large  amounts  for  cattle 
food.  The  comparatively  recent  development  of  the  cotton  oil  industry  has 
added  greatly  to  the  profit  in  cotton  growing. 

A  small  insect,  the  boll  wee\il,  has  caused  great  damage  to  growing 
cotton  in  Mexico,  Texas,  and  the  southwest.  It  lays  its^ggs  in  the  young 
buds  and  bolls,  and  the  lar\ae  eat  and  destroy  the  cottoil  Many  methods 
are  being  tried  to  destroy  this  insect  or  prevent  its  ravages. 

Silk  cotton  or  vegetable  silk  consists  of  the  hairs  from 
SILK  COTTON  seed  pods  of  various  trees  and  plants.  The  most  com- 
mon commercial  silk  cotton  is  ' '  Kapok  ' '  from  the  pods 
of  a  large  tree  ( Ceiba  pentaiidra )  which  grows  throughout  the  tropics. 
Java  furnishes  most  of  this  fiber  which  is  on  the  market.  It  is  used  for  stuff- 
ing pillows  and  in  upholstery.  Similar  fibers  are  obtained  from  other  trees 
(Bombax  ceiba,  Ochroma  lagopus,  etc.)  and  also  from  the  common  milk- 
weed. Silk  cotton  differs  from  true  cotton  in  that  its  cells  are  thin- 
walled,  straight  and  smooth,  while  those  of  true  cotton  are  thick-walled, 
have  corded  edges,  and  are  twisted  many  times  throughout  their  length. 
These  twists  cause  one  fiber  to  interlock  with  another  in  spinning'.  Because 
of  the  smoothness  and  straightness,  silk  cotton  cannot  be  spun. 

Paper  can  be  made  from  almost  any  kind  of  fibrous  material.    The 
PAPER     stocks  principally  used  are  the  woods  of  certain  trees,  a  few  kinds 

of  bark,  the  poorest  qualities  of  such  fibers  as  cotton,  flax  and  jute 
(including  the  waste  from  mills  which  use  these  fibers),  cotton  and  linen  rags, 
worn-out  ropes,  bamboo,  and  straws  of  wheat,  rice,  esparto,  or  other  grasses. 
The  finest  papers  are  made  from  linen  rags,  but  all  of  the  cheap  grades  are 
made  of  wood.  In  this  country  three  quarters  of  all  wood  pulp  is  made  of 
spruce,  and  about  one  eighth  of  poplar  wood.  Massachusetts,  New  York, 
Maine,  Wisconsin,  and  Pennsyhania  are  the  most  important  paper-making 
states.  The  chief  paper-making  countries  are  the  United  States,  England, 
Germany,  France,  Austria,  and  Belgium.  In  making  paper,  the  material 
used  is  cut  into  small  pieces  and  cleaned  by  washing,  bleaching,  and  chemical 
treatment,  from  the  cementing  and  coloring  materials  which  may  be  com- 
bined with  the  fibrous  part.  The  pulp  obtained  consists  of  the  more  or  less 
pure  fiber  (cellulose)  and  may  be  bleached  perfectly  white  or  dyed  any  de- 
sired color.  The  cheapest  grades  of  wood  pulp  are  made  by  grinding  the 
wood,  but  in  these  the  fibers  are  broken  short,  and  they  are  used  only  in  low 
grade  papers.  The  pulp  is  fed  automatically  on  a  mo\ing"  belt  made  of  wire 
cloth  and  usually  has  added  to  it  "  sizing  "  in  the  form  of  hard  resin.  The 
soft  sheet  of  pulp  is  then  pressed  between  felt  rolls,  dried,  and  passed  through 
a  series  of  heated  metal  rollers,  which  compact  the  fibers  and  give  the  paper 
a  smooth,  hard  surface.  Many  papers  and  cardboards  are  "filled"  or 
"loaded,"  that  is,  they  have  kaolin,  talc,  or  some  other  powdered  mineral 
substance  added  to  the  pulp  to  make  them  heavier  and  denser.  Blotting  paper 
has  no  sizing  added  to  it  and  is  not  ' '  calendered  ' '  by  the  heavy  rollers. 


VEGETABLE  FIBERS 


29 


Papers  are  often  made  to  imitate  leather  and  other  materials.  Wood 
pulp  and  paper  pulp  mixed  with  glue  or  sizing  (papier-mache)  is  sometimes 
moulded  under  pressure  into  car  wheels  and  other  articles  which  possess  a 
surprising  amount  of  strength  and  durability. 

Artificial  silk  is  made  from  very  pure  paper  stock. 
ARTIFICIAL  SILK  Cellulose  prepared  from  wood  or  cotton  is  treated  with 
nitric  acid,  forming  what  is  called  nitro-cellulose.  This 
is  then  dissolved  in  a  mixture  of  ether  and  alcohol.  This  solution  is  driven 
through  very  fine  tubes  forming  slender  threads  from  which  the  alcohol  and 
ether  eva[)orate  away  at  once,  leaving  the  nitro-cellulose  as  a  fine  lustrous 
fiber.  Subsequent  treatment  with  ammonium  sulphide  or  other  agent 
de-nitrifies  it  and  renders  it  less  inflammable. 

Celluloid*  is  a  substance  artificially  prepared  from  cellulose. 
CELLULOID  The  pure  cellulose  similar  to  that  used  in  inaking  artificial 
silk  is  acted  on  by  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids, 
being  converted  into  nitro-cellulose.  This  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  melted 
camphor,  by  grinding-in  heated  rollers.  It  dissolves  in  the  camphor,  form- 
ing a  tough  plastic  mass,  which  is  then  moulded  bv  pressure  into  anv  desired 
form.  It  is  made  in  sheets  by  planing  off  from  solid  blocks  in  a  machine 
similar  to  a  veneering  machine.  Celluloid  is  made  in  many  colors  and  is  used 
as  a  substitute  for  hard  rubber,  tortoise  shell,  and  ivory,  for  knife  handles, 
brushes,  combs,  and  other  toilet  and  fancy  articles,  for  billiard  balls,  piano 
keys,  collars  and  cuffs,  and  articles  of  jewelry  imitating  coral  and  jet. 

Straws,  the  stems  of    grains  or  other  grasses,  or  of  reeds  or 

STRAWS     rushes,   are   used  for   hat   making,   basketry,   mattings,   chair 

seats,  brooms,  thatching,  ropes,   and   in  paper-making.      The 

commonest  are  those  from   rye,   wheat,   barley,  rice,  esparto,  broom  corn, 

rushes  and  reeds.      Twigs  of  willow  and  roots  are  also  used  for  basketry. 

Spanish  moss  grows  from  South  Carolina  to  Argentina, 

SPANISH  MOSS     hanging  in  dense  masses  from  the  branches  of  trees. 

The  outer  cuticle  is  removed  from  the  plant  (  Tillandsia 

usneoides)  by  machinery  and  the    remaining   fiber,   which  resembles   horse 

hair,  is  used  for  upholstery.      The  unprepared  moss  is  used  as  a  packing 

material  for  fruit  and  glass. 

Zacaton,  Mexican  whisk,  or  broom  root,  is  the  root  of  a  large 

ZACATON     grass  (  Epicampcs  macroura)  which  grows  in  the  cool  districts 

of  Mexico.      It  is  used  in  making  brushes. 

Crin   Vegetal  is  the  shredded  leaves  of   a  small  palm  ( Chaviaerops 

hiimilis. )    It  is  imported  from  Algeria  in  the  form  of  ropes,  and  when  opened 

up  is  used  in  upholstery. 

Panama  Straw,  used  in  making  Panama  hats,  is  the  split  leaf  of  a  palm 
tree  {Carhidovica  palviata) . 

Rattan  comes  from  the  East  Indies.      It  is  the  stem  of  climb- 

RATTAN     ing  palms  {Calamus  species).      These  palms  are   sometimes 

many  hundred  feet  in  length  and  usually  have  strong  hooked 

*"  Celluloid  '*  is  a  trade  name  registered  by  the  Celluloid  Co. 


30 


COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 


spines  on  the  stems  and  leaves.  Rattan  owes  its  value  to  its  strength,  its 
flexibility,  and  its  uniform  size.  In  Asia  it  is  used  to  an  enormous  ex- 
tent for  basketry  and  ropes.  It  is  imported  for  use  in  making  furniture, 
baskets,  canes,  whips,  etc.  In  preparing  rattan  "cane"  for  market,  the 
natives  clean  off  the  leaves  and  outer  cuticle  by  pulling  the  stems  through  a 
notch  in  a  tree  or  board.  After  this  dressing,  rattan  is  cut  into  lengths 
and  tied  in  bundles  for  sale.  The  smooth  ' '  bark ' '  of  rattan  is  split  off  by 
machinery  in  long  slender  strips  and  is  used  in  chair-caning.  Peeled  rattan 
is  used  for  stiff  brushes,  and  for  basketry. 

Bamboo  is  the  largest  plant  of    the  grass  family  (^Bambusa 
BAMBOO     species).    It  is  found  in  tropical  countries,  but  is  most  common 

in  Japan,  China,  India,  and  the  East  Indies.  Its  stem  some- 
times reaches  a  foot  in  diameter  and  its  height  is  occasionally  a  hundred  feet. 
In  its  native  countries  it  is  used  for  house  building  and  all  sorts  of  construc- 
tion purposes,  for  making  furniture,  agricultural  implements,  canes,  fishing 
rods,  and  innumerable  other  things.  In  China,  bamboo  is  used  in  paper- 
making.  The  soft  tender  shoots  just  appearing  above  ground  are  sometimes 
cooked  and  eaten  in  both  Japan  and  China. 

Bamboo  splits  readily  into  long  flexible  strips,  which  are  woven  into 
basketry  of  all  kinds  and  used  for  making  stiff  brushes. 


WOODS. 

Lumber  is  the  product  of  the  sawmill  after  the  trees  of  the  forest  have 
been  cut  into  logs  and  hauled  to  the  mill  on  wagon,  rail  or  river.  Beams, 
scantling,  rough  boards  and  lath  are  used  in  framing,  sheathing  and 
rough  construction,  or  they  are  sent  to  the  planing  mill  and  there  surfaced, 
edged  and  dimensioned  for  exterior  and  interior  finishing  and  higher  grade 
construction.  Rough  and  surfaced  lumber  also  go  to  special  mills  and  are 
manufactured  into  finished  articles,  such  as  building  material,  furniture, 
wagon  stock,  turnery,  implements,  boxes,  cooperage  and  patterns.  Wood 
is  used  in  the  log  for  posts,  telegraph  poles,  railway  ties,  sills  and  bridging 
timber;  or  is  split  into  shingles  and  fencing.  The  consumption  of  wood  for 
fuel  throughout  every  forested  country  of  the  world  is  enormous,  and  the 
extraction  of  tar,  gums,  resins,  tans  and  dyes  from  wood  and  bark,  consti- 
tutes important  industries.  The  woods  of  cone-bearing  or  needle-leaf  trees 
are  often  called  ' '  softwoods, ' '  while  those  of  the  broad-leaf  trees  are  classed 
as  "hardwoods."  These  are  not,  however,  properly  distinguishing  terms, 
as  many  coniferous  softwoods  are  hard  and  many  of  the  common  broad  leaved 
woods  are  nearly  as  soft  as  white  pine. 

Woods  may  be  compared  by  their  relative  weight,  hardness,  strength, 
elasticity  and  durability,  and  by  color  and  grain.  Yellow,  brown  and  red  are 
the  predominating  colors.  The  grain  varies  from  straight  lines  of  growth 
to  what  is  termed  "curly"  or  "figured"  grain,  due  generally  to  uneven 
or  twisted  growth. 

Most  of  the  important  woods  of  the  United  States  are  exported  to 
Europe,  some  extensivelybecause  superior  to,  and  cheaper  than  similar  woods 


WOODS  31 


of  that  region.      Many  of  the  woods  of  the  Pacific  coast  are  also  exported  to 
Japan,  China  and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific. 

NEEDLE  LEAF  WOODS. 

Needle  leaf  or  coniferous  woods  ct  institute  by  far  the  greatest  amount  of 
lumber  used.  The  trees,  with  the  exception  of  the  junipers,  bear  distinct 
cones,  and,  excepting  bald  cypress  and  the  larches,  have  evergreen  or  non- 
deciduous  foliage.  The  woods  include  the  softest,  lightest  and  most  easily 
worked  kinds  and  may  be  characterized  as  containing  resin  and  having  no 
visible  pores  on  the  end  grain. 

The  soft  pines  are   comparatively  free  from  resin,   light, 
SOFT  PINES     easily  worked,  soft  and  not  strong,  suitable  for  the  cabinet 
maker,  joiner,  carpenter,  pattern  maker,  and  a  variety  of 
special  purposes.      The  most  important  of  them  is  white  pine. 

A\'hite  Pine,  one  of  the  most  \aluabk-  timber  trees  of  the  world,  was 
formerly  more  used  than  any  other  for  general  construction  in  the  United 
States  and  was  largely  exported.  It  forms  great  forests  in  Canada  and 
the  northeastern  United  States  and  also  grows  throughout  the  Appalachian 
Mountains  to  Georgia.  It  is  also  called  New  England,  Michigan  and  Wey- 
mouth Pine  (Piims  ^trobus^.  Trees  grow  80  to  100  ft.  high,  the  trunks  3  to 
9  ft.  in  diameter.  White  pine  is  now  becoming  scarce,  and  the  lumber  in 
A I  grades  costs  nearly  as  much  as  good  mahogany. 

Sugar  Pine  of  the  northwestern  United  States  and  British  Columbia, 
grows  100  to  300  ft.  high,  the  trunk  12  to  30  ft.  in  diameter.  It  is  exported 
to  China,  Japan  and  Hawaii. 

Western  White  Pine  of  the  Xortlnvest  is  also  a  large  tree,  and  Rocky 
Mountain  White  Pine  is  the  principal  timber  tree  of  Utah  and  Nevada. 

In  the  western  United  States  and  in  Mediterranean  countries  the  seeds 
of  various  Nut  or  Pifion  Pines  ( Pinus  edulis,  etc.)  are  collected  for  food. 

The  Yellow    or    Hard    Pines   are    resinous,   heavy,   hard, 

YELLOW  or      strong,  durable,  and  comparatively  difficult  to  work.      The 

HARD  PINES     logs  are  largely  sawed  into   dimension   timbers  for  heavy 

construction   ( piling,  wharfage,   bridging,   sills,   etc. ),  into 

boards  for  building  and  extensively  into  flooring.      The  inferior  kinds  are 

used  for  boxes,  crates,  etc. 

The  following  are  the  important  varieties: — 

Longleaf  Pine  is  the  most  valuable  yellow  pine  tree,  yielding  the  best 
grades  of  lumber.  It  forms  exclusi\  e  forests  throughout  the  southern  At- 
lantic and  Gulf  seaboard  of  the  United  States  from  North  Carolina  to  eastern 
Texas.  It  is  also  called  Georgia,  Hard  and  Southern  Pine  and  Turpentine 
tree  {Mnus  palustris ).  The  trees  occur  from  60  to  90  ft.  high  and  the  trunks 
from  2"^  to  4  ft.  in  diameter. 

Shortleaf  Pine  is  the  principal  pine  timber  tree  of  Missouri.  Arkansas, 
and  Kansas.  It  is  scattered  throughout  the  eastern  United  States.  The 
tree  is  also  called  Bull  and  Spruce  Pine  (  Pinus  tchhiata  1.  It  grows  to  about 
the  same  size  as  the  longleaf  and  the  wood  is  not  distinguishable. 


32 


COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 


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WOODS 


33 


Cul)an  Pine  is  found  near  the  coast  from  Charleston,  S.  C,  to  Missis- 
sipi)i  and  also  in  the  West  Indies  and  Central  America.  It  is  called  Slash, 
Swamp,  Meadow  and  Pitch  Pine  (Pinus  cubtnsis).  The  trees  are  somewhat 
larger  than  the  longleaf  pine  and  the  wood  is  hardly  inferior. 

Loblolly  Pine  is  scattered,  or  in  groves  throughout  the  eastern  L'nited 
States  south  of  Maryland.  Lumber  known  to  the  trade  as  North  Carolina 
pine  is  cut  almost  entirely  from  this  tree  {Pintis  taeda).  The  names  Old 
Field,  Rosemary,  Virginia,  Sap  and  Slash  Pine  are  also  applied  to  it  and  the 
lumbermen  frequently  confuse  it  with  the  shortleaf.  The  trees  grow  from 
80  to  150  ft.  high,  with  trunks  from  3  to  5  ft.  in  diameter.  The  wood  is  gen- 
erally inferior  to  longleaf  pine. 

Western  Yellow  Pine  is  a  large  tree,  common  in  portions  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  the  Coast  Range  and  the  intermediate  valleys  from  interior  British 
Columbia  to  Mexico.      It  is  also  called  Bull  Pine  (  Pinus ponderosa). 

Red  Pine  grows  in  southern  Canada,  and  the  northern  United  States.  It 
is  cut  and  marketed  with  White  Pine.     It  is  called  incorrectly  Norway  Pine. 

Northern  Pine  of  Europe  and  northwestern  Asia  is  also  called  ^'ellow 
Deal,  Redwood,  Scotch,  Memal,  and  Dantzic  Fir.  The  wood  is  similar  to 
the  yellow  pine  of  the  United  States. 

Crude  turpentine  is  a  semi-fluid,  sticky  resin  exuded  from 
CRUDE  wounds  made  in  the  trunks  of  several  trees  belonging  to 

TURPENTINE  the  Pine  family.  It  is  produced  chiefly  in  the  United  States, 
Finland,  Russia,  Austria,  France  and  India.  In  the  L'nited 
States  it  is  obtained  almost  exclusively  from  the  longleaf  or  yellow  pine  tree 
{Pinus palustr is).  Turpentine  is  usually  obtained  in  the  following  manner: 
the  trees  are  wounded  by  removing  a  wide  strip  of  bark  on  one  side  and  cut- 
ting below  this  into  the  wood  of  the  tree  a  pocket-like  cavity  known  as  a 
' '  box. ' '  The  wound  thus  made  discharges  the  fluid  into  the  pocket,  which 
holds  two  or  three  pints  and  is  filled  in  about  ten  days.  The  turpentine  is 
then  dipped  out  and  the  wound  re-opened  to  stimulate  a  further  flow.  By 
more  modern  and  careful  methods  the  turpentine  is  caught  in  vessels  which  are 
hung  on  the  trees,  which  are  thus  not  ruined  by  the  removal  of  so  large  a 
strip  of  bark  and  are  not  weakened  by  the  cutting  of  the  "box."  In  this 
way,  the  yield  of  turpentine  is  increased  and  the  life  of  the  tree  lengthened. 
The  crude  turjientine,  which  consists  of  a  resin  dissolved  in  a  \olatile  oil,  is 
put  into  a  still  with  water  and  distilled.  The  steam,  in  going  over  in  the  still, 
carries  the  \olatile  oil  with  it,  and  the  distillate  is  allowed  to  cool  in  a  vat. 
The  water  and  oil  separate  into  two  layers,  and  the  latter  is  drawn  off  in  barrels 
for  market.  It  is  known  as  spirits  of  turpentine,  or  oil  of  turpentine,  and  is 
largely  used  for  dissolving  resins  for  varnishes  and  for  mixing  paints.  It  is 
used  in  medicine  and  in  veterinary  practice  as  a  liniment. 

The  residue  remaining  in  the  still  is  a  solid  substance  of  an  amber 

ROSIN      or  blackish-brown  color  known  as  rosin  or  colophon\-.     The  color 

varies  according  to  the  purity  of  the  rosin  and  the  degree  of  heat 

used  in  its  preparation.      In  this  country  three  grades  are   in  the  market: 

"virgin,"   "yellow  dip,"  and  "hard."      Virgin  rosin  is  made  from  the  first 


34 


COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 


turpentine  that  exudes  after  the  tree  is  ' '  boxed. "  It  is  of  a  very  light  yellow 
or  amber  color.  The  greater  part  of  the  crude  turpentine  furnishes  yellow 
dip.  Hard  rosin  is  almost  black  in  color  and  is  made  from  the  scrapings 
from  the  tree  after  the  turpentine  has  become  too  hard  to  run. 

Rosin  is  used  in  making  soaps  and  \arnishes  and  for  sizing  paper.  It 
is  used  by  tinners  and  plumbers  as  a  flux  for  their  solder;  by  founders  for 
giving  tenacity  to  their  cores;  for  making  medicinal  plasters  and  sealing  wax 
and  for  rubbing  on  violin  bows.  It  is  used  in  ship  caulking;  as  an  adulterant 
of  fats,  waxes,  and  mineral  oils;  and  for  mixing  with  tallow  to  make  common 
candles.  When  rosin  is  heated  in  a  retort  it  is  decomposed  into  certain  gases, 
liquids,  and  pitch  (see  also  Tar).  The  liquid  distillate  is  chiefly  rosin  spirit 
and  rosin  oil,  the  former  resembling  oil  of  turpentine.  These  are  used  in 
varnish  making  and  for  "  rosin  grease  " — a  lubricant. 

Pine  Needle  Wool,  used  for  stuffing  mattresses,  pillows  and  for  making 
mats  and  rugs,  is  made  from  the  lea\es  of  the  longleaf,  Cuban,  European 
and  western  yellow  pines,  and  from  these  species  Pine  Needle  Oil,  used 
medicinallv,  is  also  made. 

The  Spruces  are  valuable  trees  furnishing  soft,  light,  very  white 

SPRUCE      wood,  the  heart  not  easily  distinguishable  from  the  sap.     The 

trees  are  of  northern  growth,  and  wide    distribution.      The 

wood  is  used  commonly  for  construction  and  more  than  any  other  kinds  for 

making  paper  pulp. 

White  Spruce,  since  the  scarcity  of  white  pine,  has  become  an  important 
timber  tree.  It  is  not  found  south  of  the  40th  parallel  in  the  United  States, 
but  forms  vast  forests  throughout  Canada  as  far  north  as  Labrador  and 
Alaska.  The  trees  (Picea  canadensis)  grow  60  to  150  ft.  high,  the  trunks  3 
to  5  ft.  in  diameter.      The  wood  has  a  satiny  lustre. 

Black  Spruce  is  very  similar  to  the  preceding  with  nearlv  the  same 
range  {Picea  mariana). 

Red  Spruce  is  a  somewhat  smaller  tree  {Picca  rubra)  growing  as  far 
south  as  North  Carolina,  on  the  high  peaks  of  the  AUeghanies.  The  wood 
is  not  distinguishable  from  white  spruce. 

Tideland  Spruce  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  important  timber  trees 
of  the  Pacific  northwest.  The  wood  is  used  for  boat  building,  cooperage, 
woodenware,  shooks,  excelsior,  interior  finish,  fencing,  piling,  carpentry, 
furniture,  and  also  for  paper  pulp.  The  trees  (Picea  sitc/iensis)  grow  only 
near  the  coast,  from  Alaska  to  California,  and  reach  a  height  of  200  to  300  ft. 
and  4  to  20  ft.  in  diameter  of  trunk. 

Nor\vay  Spruce  is  one  of  the  most  useful  trees  of  Europe,  and  has  been 
extensively  planted  in  the  United  States  for  ornamental  shade. 

Two  other  species  of  spruce  common  in  the  Rockies  and  the  Northwest 
are  cut  locally  for  lumber.      These  are  Engelmann's  and  the  Blue  Spruce. 

The  Hemlocks  are  trees  of  the  first  economic  value,  and 
HEMLOCK       have  become  more  so  since  the  scarcity  of  pine.      The  wood 
is  splintery,  pinkish  white  in   color,   coarse  grained,  and 
easily  worked  though  tough. 


I 


I 


I 


woons 


35 


Eastern  Hemlock  is  used  more  than  other  trees  for  framing  timbers, 
scanthng^,  sheathing,  etc.  It  occurs  in  southeastern  Canada  and  the  north- 
eastern United  States,  and  grows  to  a  height  of  60  to  So  ft.  with  a  trunk 
from  2  to  3  ft.  in  diameter  {Tsuga  canadensis). 

Western  Hemlock  furnishes  a  wood  superior  to  that  of  the  eastern 
species.  It  is  used  also  for  wainscoting,  stair  work,  and  turning.  The  trees 
grow  from  100  to  150  ft.  high,  tht-  trunks  2  to  8  ft.  in  diameter  {Tsuga 
helerophylla ) . 

The  Firs,  with  the  exception  of  two  species,  furnish  wood  that  is 
FIR       coarse  grained  and  inferior  to   that   of   the  other  conifers.      It  is 
used   mainly   for    light   construction,  packing    cases,    paper  pulp, 
and  charcoal. 

Douglas  Fir  is  the  most  abundant  and  useful  tree  of  the  Pacific  coast, 
and  is  found  throughout  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  wood  is  used  for  heavy 
construction,  bridging,  piling,  railroad  ties,  sash,  doors,  flooring,  shipbuild- 
ing, furniture,  and  especially  for  masts  and  spars,  for  which  it  is  extensively 
exported.  It  is  also  called  Douglas  Spruce,  Oregon  Pine,  Red  Fir  and 
^'ellow  Fir  {Pseudotsuga  muoonala) .  A  large  tree,  from  100  to  300  ft.  high, 
with  a  trunk  2  to  15  ft.  in  diameter,  it  sometimes  furnishes  logs  clear  of  limb 
90  feet  long. 

Noble  Fir  yields  a  wood  that  is  hard,  strong  and  elastic.  The  tree  is 
peculiar  to  the  Cascade  and  Coast  ranges  of  Oregon.  The  wood  is  valuable 
for  general  construction,  boat-building  and  furniture.  It  is  also  called  Red 
Fir  {Abies  nobilis).  The  tree  grows  200  to  300  ft.  high  and  3  to  i  t  ft.  in 
diameter  of  trunk.      The  wood  is  light  brown,  streaked  with  red. 

White  Fir,  common  in  the  northwest  United  States  and  British  Colum- 
bia, is  of  two  species,  one  growing  on  the  higher  mountains,  and  the  other 
near  the  coast  and  in  the  valleys. 

Magnificent  Fir,  the  largest  tree  of  the  genus,  furnishes  lumber  for  sills, 
framing,  w<Midenware,  and  cooperage.  It  grows  in  southwestern  Oregon 
and  northern  California,  with  a  height  of  250  to  300  ft.,  and  a  diameter  of 
from  6  to  1 2  ft. 

Balsam  F"ir  is  relatively  a  small  tree  common  throughout  eastern  North 
America  as  far  .south  as  the  mountains  of  Virginia.  The  most  valuable 
product  from  this  tree  {Abies  balsamea)  is  Canada  Balsam,  used  medicinally 
and  in  the  arts. 

Silver  Fir  of  Europe  is  used  ff>r  many  purposes,  and  because  of  its  son- 
orous quality  is  imported  as  ' '  Swiss  Pine  ' '  for  the  sounding  boards  of  pianos 
and  violins. 

California  Redwood  is  one  of  the  largest  trees  of  the  world 

CALIFORNIA     and  the  most  valuable  on  the  California  coast.    It  is  closely 

REDWOOD       related,  and   has    wood   very  similar,   to   the  famous    big 

trees  of   California.      The  wood  is  especially  valuable  for 

shingles,  tanks,  coffins  and  light  construction.      The  trees  {Scqtcoia  se77ipcr- 

vin-ns^  grow  from  200  to  yoo  ft.  high,  with  a  diameter  of  trunk  from  8  to  22  ft. 


36  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 

The  wood  is  verv  soft  and  light,  of  a  dull  red  color,  straight  grained  and 
does  not  warp  or  shrink  readily. 

The    Larches    furnish  wood   that  is   strong  and   very  durable, 

LARCH     moderately  hard,  straight  grained,  and  not  unlike  yellow  pine, 

but  less  resinous.      The  wood  is  used  for  ship  timbers,  telegraph 

poles,  railroad  ties,  boat  knees,  flooring,  framing,  posts,  etc.     The  trees  grow 

from  80  to  150  ft.  high,  with  trunks  2  to  5  ft.  in  diameter. 

Eastern  Larch  is  found  in  Canada  and  the  northeastern  I'nited  States. 
It  is  also  called  Tamarack  and  Hackmatack  (Larix  amcnca^ia) . 

Western  Larch  is  abundant  in  British  Columbia  and  the  Northwest.  The 
name  Tamarack  is  also  applied  to  it  {Larix occidcntalis). 

European  Larch  grows  in  the  Alps  of  central  Europe  and  in  Lapland, 
Norway  and  Siberia.  The  wood  is  used  especially  for  piling  on  account  of 
its  durability. 

Cypress  is  a  rather  general  term  for  many  woods  allied  to,  or 
CYPRESS     identical  with  the  Cedars.     The  wood  is  distinctly  grained, 
soft,  coarse,  and  used  for  cabinet  work,  interior  finish,  shingles, 
framing,  posts,  etc. 

Bald  Cypress  is  common  along  the  southern  coast  of  the  L'nited  States, 
from  Delaware  to  southern  Te.xas,  and  in  the  lower  Mississippi  \'alley.  The 
tree  (  Taxodium  distidmm)  grows  from  80  to  140  feet  high,  with  a  diameter 
of  trunk  5  to  1 2  feet. 

Yellow  Cypress  grows  near  the  coast  from  Sitka  to  Oregon.  It  is  also 
called  Alaska  Cedar  {Chamaecyparis  nootkatensis). 

Lawson's  Cypress  of  Oregon  and  northern  California,  growing  near  the 
coast,  is  also  called  Port  Orford  Cedar,  and  Ginger  Pine  {Chamaecyparis law- 
sonia7ia).  It  grows  from  100  to  200  ft.  high  and  has  a  trunk  from  2  to  6  ft. 
in  diameter. 

Cypress  of  the  Old  World  is  a  common  tree  of  the  Mediterranean  region 
of  Europe,  Asia  Minor  and  Persia.  Egyptian  mummy  cases  and  ancient 
gates  made  of  this  wood  were  sound  after  iioo  years. 

Cypress  Pine  is  a  valuable  tree  of  Australia,  having  a  fine  figured  wood, 
with  a  camphor-like  fragrance,  used  for  furniture. 

Indian  Cypress  grows  in  the  Himalaya  Mountains  and  furnishes  brown, 
hard  wood  used  for  building. 

The  White  Cedars   are  so  called  to   distinguish   the 

WHITE  CEDAR       wood  from  the  Red  Cedars  or  Junipers.      The  color  of 

the  heartwood,  however,  maybe  grayish  pink  or  brown. 

The  trees  are    cut   largely  for    posts,    telegraph    poles,    fencing  and    split 

shingles  and  are  sawed  into  lumber  for  tanks,  boats  and  wooden  ware.    The 

wood  is  very  fragrant. 

Incense  Cedar  is  a  common  tree  of  Oregon  and  California.  The  trees 
{Libocedrus  dcciirrnts)  grow  from  100  tn  150  ft.  high,  and  3  to  7  feet  di- 
ameter of  trunk. 


\\'oons  37 


Canoe  Cedar  is  common  in  the  northwest  from  Alaska  to  Cahfornia  and 
Montana.  It  is  also  called  Giant  and  Red  Cedar  (  Thuya  plicata).  The 
heart  wood  is  reddish  brown. 

Common  White  Cedar  grows  along  the  eastern  coa«t  of  the  United 
States  from  Maine  to  Mississippi.  The  trees  (Chamaecyparis  thyoides)  grow 
50  to  70  ft.  high  with  trunks  2  to  3  ft.  in  diameter. 

Arbor  Vitae,  a  small  tree  common  in  Canada  and  the  northeastern 
United  States  is  less  valuaV)le.  It  has  become  a  conimon  lawn  ornanu-nt 
and  hedge  tree. 

Deodar  is  one  of  the  chief  timber  trees  of  northwest  India.  Cedar  oi 
Lebanon  occurs  in  southwest  Asia.  Atlas  Cedar  grows  in  the  mountains 
of  north  Africa. 

The   Red  Cedars  are  widely  distributed  trees  commonly 
RED  CEDAR       called  Junipers.      The  wood  is  fragrant,  soft,  light,  and 
easily  cut,   and    is   used   for   lead   pencils,    woodenware, 
chests,  cabinets  and  fence  posts. 

Common  Red  Cedar  is  found  all  over  the  eastern  and  central  United 
States  and  is  notably  the  lead  pencil  tree.  It  is  also  called  Red  Juniper, 
Savin  and  Pencil  Cedar  {Juniperus  virginiana).  It  occurs  as  a  small  shrub  or 
grows  as  high  as  100  ft.  with  a  trunk  4  J4  ft.  in  diameter.  The  wood  is  deeper 
red  than  that  of  any  other  species,  and,  when  straight  grained,  of  greater 
value. 

Western  Juniper  is  of  two  very  similar  species  common  in  Washington, 
Oregon  and  California.  The  trees  grow  50  ft.  high  and  as  large  as  3  ft.  in 
diameter  of  trunk,  but  are  often  only  low  shrubs. 

THE   BROAD   LEAVED  WOODS. 

The  broad  leaved  woods  are  from  those  trees  that  are  generally  termed 
deciduous,  although  many  of  them  are  evergreen.  They  are  of  greater  variety 
and  wider  distribution  than  the  coniferous  trees  and  the  woods  are  more 
varied  in  grain,  color  and  te.xture.  The  extremes  are  reached  in  very  white, 
jet  black,  rich  red,  and  bright  yellow,  and  they  include  the  hardest  and 
strongest  woods.     They  are  not  resinous. 

The  softer  broad  leaved  woods  of  the  most  important  species  are  as 
follows : — 

Tulip  Poplar,  a  tree  of  the  first  economic  importance 
TULIP  POPLAR  and  the  largest  tree  in  the  eastern  United  States,  is  com- 
mon in  the  Mississippi  \'alley  and  the  Atlantic  States 
south  of  Vermont.  The  wood  is  used  for  a  great  variety  of  purposes  in  which 
it  now  largely  takes  the  place  of  white  pine.  It  is  also  called  Tulip  tree  and 
W'hitewood  {Liriodetidroii  tulipifcra).  It  grows  to  a  height  of  125  to  250 
ft.  with  a  diameter  of  trunk  from  6  to  14  ft.  The  wood  is  variable,  generally 
soft,  easily  worked,  not  durable,  color  yellowish  white,  shading  to  greenish 
or  brownish. 


38  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 

The  Lindens  are  important  trees  furnishing  soft,  light,  smooth 
LINDEN       wood  of  a  light  color  used  for  general  construction   and   for 
many   special   purposes,    such    as    carriage    bodies,    handles, 
cooperage,  paper  pulp  and  gunpowder  charcoal. 

American  Linden  is  common  throughout  southeastern  Canada  and  north- 
eastern and  central  L^nited  States.  It  is  also  called  Basswood,  Lime,  Bee 
tree,  Lin  and  Whitewood  {Tilia  americana) .  The  trees  occur  from  70  to 
80  ft.  high  with  trunks  3  to  4  ft.  in  diameter. 

White  Basswood,  a  tree  found  in  the  central  United  States,  is  very  similar 
to  and  commercially  confounded  with  the  foregoing.  It  is  also  called  Wahoo 
(  Tilia  heterophylla). 

European  Linden  is  of  three  species  common  in  Europe.  These  are 
also  called  Lime  trees  or  Lins.  The  wood  is  used  for  carvings,  druggist 
boxes,  etc.  Linden  bast  fiber  prepared  from  the  inner  bark  is  used  for  cord- 
age, mats,  bagging,  and  fishing  nets. 

Cottonwood,  similar  to  linden,  is  used  for  much  the 
COTTONWOOD  same  purposes,  and  very  extensively  for  paper  pulp. 
It  is  found  throughout  the  eastern  and  central  L^nited 
States,  reaching  its  greatest  development  in  the  south  and  west  of  the 
Mississippi.  It  is  also  called  Carolina  and  Necklace  Poplar  {Popiihis  del- 
toides).  The  trees  grow  from  80  to  175  ft.  high  and  from  4  to  8  ft.  in 
diameter  of  trunk.  The  wood  is  soft,  fibrous,  light,  and  grayish  white,  or 
brown. 

The  close  grained,  typically  hard  woods  (in  which  the  grain  pits 
are  not  conspicuous)  are  of  many  important  species. 

The  Maples  furnish  wood  that  is  compact,  tough,  susceptible 
MAPLE  of  a  fine  polish  and  often  beautifully  grained  or  figured,  being 
then  variously  called  "  curly,"  "bird'seye,"  "blister,"  "land- 
scape, ' '  and  ' '  fiddle  back  ' '  maple.  The  wood  is  extensively  used  for  veneer- 
ing, flooring,  furniture,  the  backs  of  violins,  wooden  bowls,  shoe  lasts, 
rulers,  tool  handles,  and  inlay  work.  It  is  especially  valuable  for  charcoal 
and  potash. 

Sugar  Maple  is  a  tree  of  the  first  economic  importance  in  North  America, 
growing  in  southeastern  Canada  and  the  northeastern  states  along  the 
Alleghany  Mountains  to  Georgia  and  also  in  west  Florida.  It  is  also  called 
Hard  and  Rock  Maple  [Acer  sacc/ianan).  The  trees  grow  50  to  100  ft. 
high  with  trunks  2  to  4  ft.  in  diameter.  The  wood  is  hard  and  most  com- 
monly furnishes  the  figured  forms.  Maple  sugar  is  chiefly  taken  from  this 
tree.  The  sap  is  drawn  off  by  tapping  the  trunks  in  early  spring  and  is  then 
boiled  down  until  it  is  of  the  desired  consistency. 

Red  Maple  is  a  similar  tree  growing  throughout  the  eastern  and  western 
United  States  and  Canada.  It  is  also  called  Swamp  Maple  ( Arer  rubnnn). 
The  wood  is  darker  and  less  valuable  than  sugar  maple. 

Silver  Ma[)le  is  also  common  throughout  the  eastern  and  central  United 
States  and  Canada.  It  is  also  called  Soft  Maple  (^Acer  saaharinum).  The 
wood  is  inferior  and  less  used  than  sugar  maple. 


WOODS 


39 


Broad  Leaved  Maple  is  a  valuable  tree  common  on  the  Pacific  coast  from 
Alaska  to  California.      It  is  also  called  Oregon  Maple  {Acer  macrophylluni). 

Common  Maple  of  Europe  and  northern  Asia  is  a  valuable  cabinet  wood. 

Norway  Maple  of  northern  Europe  and  Switzerland  is  not  commer- 
cially distinguished  from  the  preceding.  It  is  extensively  planted  in  the 
United  States  as  a  shade  tree  i^Acer  plalatioides). 

Sycamore  Maple  of  Europe  and  western  Asia  furnishes  a  wood  similar 
to  and  often  confused  with  the  preceding.  Other  species  are  the  Himalayan 
Maples  and  the  Japanese  Maples  used  for  cabinet  and  carpenter  work. 

Several  species  of  Birch  furnish  wood  which  is  hard,  strong,  com- 

BIRCH     pact  and  fine  grained.      It  is  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes,  such 

as  making  handles,  clothes  pins,  tools,  shoe  pegs,  woodenware, 

wheel    hubs,   fellies,   fruit    baskets   and    boxes,   veneers,   furniture,   and   for 

charcoal. 

Cherry  Birch,  the  most  important  and  generally  used  of  the  North 
American  birches,  is  found  throughout  the  northeastern  United  States  and 
southern  Canada  and  in  Tennessee.  It  is  also  called  Black,  Sweet,  and 
Mahogany  Birch  {Betula  lento).  The  wood  is  reddish  and  the  trees  grow 
from  60  to  80  ft.  in  height  with  trunks  2  to  3  ft.  in  diameter.  Wavy  or 
figured  grain,  called  "curly"  birch,  is  highly  prized  and  shows  a  beautiful 
golden  satiny  lustre. 

Yellow  Birch,  of  much  the  same  locality  as  the  preceding,  furnishes 
wood  that  is  lighter  in  color  {Betula  lutea). 

Paper  Birch  is  similar  to  Yellow  Birch,  and  is  found  from  Labrador  to 
Alaska  and  from  Maine  to  Washington.  It  is  also  called  Canoe  Birch  {Betula 
papvrifera).  The  bark  of  this  tree  is  peeled  off  and  used  for  making  canoes, 
tents  and  fancy  articles. 

European  Birch,  of  northern  Europe  and  Asia,  is  very  similar  to  Ameri- 
can Cherry  Birch.  The  bark  is  used  extensively  for  baskets,  boats,  cordage, 
dyeing  and  tanning. 

Beech  is  a  valuable  wood  for  many  purposes.      It  is  heavy,  hard, 

BEECH     strong,  compact  and  fine  grained,  and  of  a  light  brown  or  pinkish 

brown  color,  the  radiating  rays  being  quite  distinct.      It  is  used 

for  tools,  handles,  clothes  pins,  wagon  stock,  shoe  lasts  and  for  gunpowder 

charcoal.      The  trees  grow  from  50  to  100  ft.  high,  with  trunks  2  to  4  ft.  in 

diameter. 

American  Beech  {Fagus  atropujiicea)  is  very  common  in  southern 
Canada  and  eastern  and  central  United  States. 

European  Beech  is  common  except  in  Scandinavia  and  eastern  Russia. 
The  wood  is  used  largely  for  sabots. 

Sycamore  (called  Plane  in  the  Old  World )  is  a  wood  valued 

SYCAMORE     chieflv  for  interior  decoration.      It   is  common  from  Maine 

to  Florida,  and  from  Nebraska  to  Texas.    The  wood  is  light 

reddish  brown,  compact,  rather  hard,  uneven  grained,  and  difficult  to  work. 

When  cut  radially  it  possesses  a  beautiful  mottled  and  cross  banded  figure 


40  COMMKRCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 

knnwii  as  "  lacewood  "  or  "  honeysuckle."  The  tree  is  also  called  Button- 
ball  ^Platanus  omde7ttalis^.  It  grows  from  90  to  135  ft.  high,  and  from  5 
to  12  ft.  in  diameter  of  trunk. 

Eastern  Plane  is  found  in  southeastern  Evn-ope  and  southwestern  Asia. 
Holly  is  a  rather  small  tree,  the  very  white  close  grained  wood 
HOLLY     of  which  is  much  used  for  fancy  articles,  turnery,  fret   sawing, 
inlay  work,  car\ing  and  almost  exclusively  for   picture  burning. 
American  Holly  ( Ilex  opaca )  is  common  in  certain  localities  from  Mas- 
sachusetts to  Missouri  and  from  Florida  to  eastern  Texas. 

European  Holly  is  found  in  central  Europe  and  western  Asia. 

The  open  grained  hard  woods  (with  the  grain  pits  very  conspicuous) 
of  light  color  are  all  used  for  a  great  variety  of  purposes.  The  various  shades 
of  finished  wood,  in  furniture,  cabinet  work,  and  interior  decoration,  such  as 
"golden"  oak  or  ash,  "green  oak,"  "antique,"  "old  English,"  "Tus- 
can," etc.,  are  entirely  the  result  of  fillers  put  on  to  close  up  the  pores  before 
the  varnishes  are  applied. 

Oaks  are  of  many  species,  most  of  which  are  very  useful.  To 
OAKS  lumbermen  in  the  United  States  they  are  known  as  White  Oak, 
Live  Oak  and  Red  Oak,  and  the  species  are  hardly  distinguished 
further.  The  medullary  or  radiating  rays  are  large  and  conspicuous  and  give 
beautifully  figured  grain  when  ' '  quartered, ' '  or  sawed  from  the  bark  to  the 
center  of  the  tree,  parallel  to  these  rays.  To  effect  this  best  the  logs  are 
cut  in  quarters  before  cutting  into  boards,  whence  the  name.  Boards  cut  in 
the  ordinary  manner  and  showing  the  radiating  rays  cut  at  right  angles  are 
called  "plain"  sawed  or  "  straight  oak." 

White  Oaks  are  hard,  tough,  strong,  elastic  and  durable 

WHITE  OAK       and  generally  of  a  light  grayish  brown  with  a  pale  pink 

tinge.      The  trees  are  cut  for  bridge  and  building  timbers, 

railroad  ties  and  posts;  also  for  lumber  for  furniture,  cooperage,  agricultural 

implements,  wagon  stock,  and  especially  when  quarter  sawn,  for  fine  cabinet 

work,  interior  finish,  flooring,  etc.      The  white  oaks  are  as  as  follows: 

White  Oak  is  common  from  Maine  to  Michigan  and  Missouri,  and  from 
Florida  to  central  Texas.  The  trees  {Querciis  alba)  grow  from  80  to  150  ft. 
high,  and  the  trunks  from  4  to  8  ft.  in  diameter.  The  bark  is  used  for 
tanning. 

Burr  Oak  is  very  similar  to  the  preceding  with  a  somewhat  more  northern 
range.  The  wood  is  possibly  harder  and  tougher.  It  is  also  called  Mossy- 
cup  Oak  {Ouerciis  macrocarpd). 

Over-Cup  Oak  {Quercus  lyrata)  is  similar  and  grows  along  the  Atlantic 
coast  from  Delaware  to  Texas. 

Chestnut  Oak  grows  only  in  the  eastern  and  central  states  from  Massa- 
chusetts to  Tennessee.  From  the  bark  and  wood  of  this  {Oiiemis  priuiis) 
and  the  two  following  species,  more  than  from  other  American  oaks,  are  made 
extracts  extensively  used  in  tanning. 


WOODS  41 


W'llow  Oak  is  a  small  tree  or  shrub  in  the  eastern  United  States  and  a 
medium  sized  tree  {Queiriis  prinoides)  west  of  the  Mississippi  to  Kansas 
and  western  Texas. 

Basket  Oak  or  Cow  Oak  (Quercus  michauxii)  is  common  in  the  southern 
states  from  Delaware  and  Kentucky,  to  Florida  and  central  Texas. 

Swamp  White  Oak  (  Quercus  bicolor)  grows  in  the  northeastern  states 
and  most  commonly  in  the  ret>;ion  south  of  the  Great  Lakes. 

Oregon  White  Oak  and  Tanbark  Oak  grow-  from  \'ancouver  Island  to 
California,  generally  near  the  coast  (^Quercus  gai-ryana  and  O.  densiflora). 

The  Live  Oaks  are  exceedingly  hard,  tough,  strong,  durable 
LIVE  OAK      and  difficult  to  work.      Because   of  their  scarcity  and    the 
small  size  of  the  trees   they  are  used  only  for  special  pur- 
poses, such  as  boat-building,  wagons,  agricultural  implements,  etc. 

Southern  Live  Oak  {Quercus  virens)  grows  from  \'irginia  to  Mexico 
along  the  coast  and  in  western  Texas. 

Western  Live  Oak  is  peculiar  to  Oregon,  California  and  southern  Ari- 
zona.     It  is  also  called  Maul  Oak  {Querais  chrysolopis). 

The  Red  Oaks  are  somewhat  softer,  more  open  grained,  and 

RED  OAK       less  durable  than  white  oak.      The  heart  wood  is  of  a  decided 

pink  or  light  red  color.      They  find  much  the  same  general 

uses  as  white  oak  and  are  commonly  quarter  sawn.      The  trees  grow  from 

80  to  100  ft.  high,  with  trunks  3  to  6  ft.  in  diameter. 

Spanish  Oak  (Querais  digitata)  grows  along  the  coast  from  New  York 
toTe.xas,  and  through  the  central  states  south  of  Ohio  and  Missouri.  It  is 
also  called  Red  Oak.  The  wood  is  extensively  used  for  cooperage  and 
furniture. 

Red  Oak  {Otierats  rubra)  grows  throughout  the  eastern  and  central 
United  States,  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Texas. 

Black  Oak  is  common  from  Maine  to  Florida,  and  Minnesota  to  Te.xas. 
It  is  also  called  Yellow  Bark  and  Quercitron  Oak  {Quercus  velutina).  The 
wood  is  very  red,  open  grained  and  generally  inferior  to  other  red  oaks. 
A  tanning  extract  known  as  Quercitron,  and  largely  used,  is  made  from  the 
bark.      The  inner  bark  yields  a  yellow  dye. 

Pin  Oak  grows  from  New  York  to  Virginia  and  is  common  west  of  the 
Alleghany  Mountains,  to  Wisconsin  and  Arkansas.  It  is  also  called  Swamp 
Spanish  Oak  {Quercus palus/ris).  The  wood  is  inferior  to  white  oak,  but  is 
sometimes  sold  for  it. 

Willow  Oak  grows  near  the  coast  from  Nev\-  York  to  Texas  and  from 
Kentucky  to  Arkansas.      It  is  also  known  as  Peach  Oak  {Quercus  phellos). 
Old  \\'nrl(l  Oaks  yield  wood  very  similar  to  that  of  the 
OLD  WORLD     American  species. 

OAKS  English   Oak  is  common  throughout   Europe,  Syria 

and  northern  Africa.      It  is  known  as  European  and  Dur- 
mast Oak  {Quercus  rohiir). 


42 


COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 


Turkey  Oak  of  middle  and  southern  Kurope  and  western  Asia  is  also 
known  as  Adriatic,  Iron,  and  Wainscot  Oak  (Quercus  cerris). 

There  are  several  species  of  important  timber  oaks  in  India  (the  Hima- 
layan region)  and  several  in  Japan.  Many  of  these  trees  are  evergreen  and 
belong  to  the  live  oaks. 

In  one  European  species  of  oak  (  Ourrcus  subcr)  the  bark  is  un- 
CORK  usually  thick  and  spongy,  and  the  outer  layer  can  be  stripped  off 
without  injury  to  the  tree.  The  product  oi  the  first  stripping, 
called  virgin  cork,  is  rough.  It  is  used  chiefly  for  tanning  and  for  decora- 
tive purposes  by  florists.  In  from  six  to  ten  years  another  layer  can  be 
removed.  The  best  cork  comes  from  old  trees.  It  is  taken  off  in  large  sheets, 
dipped  in  hot  water,  pressed  flat,  dried,  and  baled  for  shipment.  Corks  are 
cut  by  machinery  and  the  cuttings  and  waste  are  used  in  making  linoleum 
and  life  preservers.  Cork  is  produced  principally  in  Portugal,  Algeria, 
Spain,  southern  France,  Tunis,  Italy,  Morocco,  Greece  and  Austria. 

Ash  is  a  wood  of  great  value  because  of  its  strength,  elasticity  and 

ASH     comparative  lightness.      It  is  easy  to  work  and  its  many  excellent 

qualities  cause  it  to  be  used  for  agricultural  implements,  carriages, 

buggy  shafts,   oars,   fishing  rods,   etc.      It  is  also  employed  for  furniture, 

interior  of  cars,  boat  cabins  and  building.     There  are  se\'eral  species,  of  which 

the  most  important  is  the  first  named. 

White  Ash  grows  throughout  the  eastern  and  central  United  States,  from 
southeastern  Canada  to  Minnesota  and  Texas.  The  trees  (Fraxinus  ameri- 
cana)  are  from  50  to  1 25  ft.  high  with  trunk  diameters  of  4  to  6  ft. 

Oregon  Ash  grows  from  Washington  to  California  along  the  coast. 

Red  Ash,  Green  Ash,  Black  Ash,  and  Blue  Ash  are  all  small  or  medium 
sized  trees  growing  in  the  eastern  or  central  L'uited  States. 

European  Ash  is  a  native  of  all  Europe  and  north  Africa.  It  is  also 
called  Common  Ash.  Curly  forms  of  the  wood  occur  in  Hungary  that  are 
much  prized  for  furniture  and  are  imported  to  the  United  States. 

Shioyi-Noki,  the  common  ash  of  Japan,  is  similar  to  our  smaller  ashes 
and  is  used  similarly. 

Chestnut  is  included  among  the  so-called  hard  woods, 
CHESTNUT  although  it  is  soft,  light,  not  strong,  and  is  easily  sjilit  and 
worked.  Formerl)-  little  used  except  for  fencing  and  rough 
construction,  it  has  now  become  one  of  the  most  commonly  used  cabinet 
woods.  It  is  open  grained,  very  decorative  because  of  the  wide  annual 
rings,  light  brown  in  color  and  has  much  the  appearance  of,  and  is  often  used 
as  a  substitute  for,  plain  sawed  oak  in  furniture  and  interior  finish.  It  is 
very  durable.  The  young  trees  are  extensively  cut  for  telegraph  poles.  The 
W'Ood  is  also  used  for  making  charcoal  and  a  tanning  extract  is  made  from 
the  wood  and  bark.      The  nuts  are  an  important  article  of  commerce. 

American  Chestnut  is  common  throughout  the  northern  United  States 
from  Maine  to  Tennessee.  The  trees  (Castanca  doitata)  grow  to  a  height 
of   100  ft.  and  the  trunks  4  to  12  ft.  in  diameter. 


WOODS  43 


Eviropean  Chestnut  is  very  similar,  the  trees  often  reachintf  an  enor- 
mous ejirth. 

Ehn  is,  for  special  uses,  a  very  desirable  wood.     It  is  similar  to  ash, 
ELM     hut  tougher,  stronger,  equally  elastic  and  even  easier  to  work.     The 
grain  is  similar  to  ash,  but  the  texture  is   velvety  and  the  color 
gravish.      It  is  used  for  boat-building,  wagon  spokes,  extensively  for  fellies, 
the  rims  of  metal  wheels,  for  agricultural   implements,  butcher  blocks,  car- 
riages, tool  handles,  cooperage,  flooring,  etc. 

American  Elm  grows  from  southern  Newfoundland  to  the  Canadian 
Rockies,  south  to  Florida  and  northern  Texas.  It  is  also  called  White  Elm. 
(  Ulmus  americand) .  The  trees  grow  loo  ft.  high  with  trunks  from  4  to  7  ft. 
in  diameter. 

Rock  Elm  is  found  from  Vermont  and  Ontario  to  Kentucky  and  Iowa. 
It  is  also  called  Cork  Elm  (  Ulmus  racemosa). 

Red  or  Slippery  Elm,  Cedar  Elm,  and  Winged  Elm  or  Wahoo  are 
smaller  trees  of  the  central  and  southern  United  States,  the  former  as  far 
north  as  Ontario. 

English  Elm  grows  throughout  Europe.  The  wood  is  similar  to 
American  Elm. 

Hickory  is  justly  famous  as  one  of  the  toughest  of  woods  and 
HICKORY  is,  therefore,  much  used  for  purposes  where  strength  is  neces- 
sary. It  is  very  tough  and  pliable  when  green,  but  after 
thoroughly  drying  becomes  stiff  and  somewhat  brittle.  It  is  supposed  to 
excel  for  wagon  axles,  spokes,  fellies,  axe,  pick  and  hammer  handles,  cer- 
tain agricultural  implements,  etc.  The  white  sapwood,  though  generally 
preferred,  is  not  sujjerior  to  the  darker  heartwooil.  The  trees  grow  from  80 
to  100  ft.  high  and  with  trunks  from  3  to  4  ft.  in  diameter.  The  woods  of 
the  several  species  do  not  differ.  The  species  grow  from  southern  Ontario 
to  Minnesota,  Florida  and  Texas. 

Shell  bark  Hickory  is  also  called  Shag  Bark  {Hicoria  ovata).  The 
sweet,  thin  shelled  nuts  are  an  article  of  commerce. 

Mockernut  Hickory  is  also  known  as  King  Nut,  Bull  Nut  and  White 
Heart  Hickory  {Hicoria  alba). 

Pignut  Hickory  is  called  Brown  and  Black  Hickory  (Hicoria  glabra). 

Pecan  {Hicoria  pecaii)  is  common  from  Indiana  to  Nebraska,  and  to 
southern  Texas.  The  wood  is  somewhat  inferior  t(j  shell  bark  hickorv:  the 
nut  superior  to  all  other  species. 

Locust  is  useful  for  fence  posts,  railroad  ties,  sills,  etc. ,  because 

LOCUST     of  its  great  durability  in  contact  with  the  soil.      The  Common 

Locust  {Robinia  pseudacacia  )  with  yellow  wood  and  the  Honey 

Locust  (Gleditschia  triacayithos)  with  brownish  red  wood,  both  mediinn  sized 

trees,  are  common  in  the  eastern  central  United  States. 

The  dark  colored  distinctly  decorative  woods  native  to  the  L'nited 
States,  are  used  almost  exclusivelv  for  purposes  where  beauty  of  color  and 
grain  are  essential. 


44  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 


Black  Walnut  grows  from  Massachusetts  to  Florida, 
BLACK  WALNUT  and  from  Minnesota  to  central  Texas.  It  was  formerly 
so  sought  after  as  a  favorite  cabinet  wood  that  it  has 
become  very  scarce.  It  is  now  principally  used  for  gun  stocks,  turnery, 
mouldings,  inlay  work  and  musical  instruments.  The  trees  {Jiiglans  nigra) 
occur  from  loo  to  150  ft.  high  with  trunks  from  6  to  10  ft.  in  diameter.  The 
wood  is  very  dark  brown  or  purplish  brown  moderately  hard  and  strong  but 
easily  worked.      The  nuts  are  edible. 

Old  World  Walnut  is  a  native  of  China  and  Persia  and  has  been  exten- 
sively introduced  throughout  Europe,  and  is  commonly  known  as  English, 
French  and  Italian  Walnut.  The  wood  is  used  for  gun  stocks,  cabinet  work, 
veneering,  etc. 

Butternut  {Jiiglans  dncrea)  is  similar  to  walnut,  but  softer 
BUTTERNUT     and  of  a  light  pinkish  brown  color.    It  grows  from  southern 
Canada  and  Minnesota  to  Mississippi  and  Arkansas.      The 
nuts  are  edible. 

Cherry  has  now  become  exceedingly  scarce  and  high  priced. 
CHERRY  Few  woods  possess  its  combined  advantages  of  color,  grain, 
texture  and  stability,  these  making  it  prized  for  pattern  making, 
turning,  printer's  furniture,  musical  instruments,  cabinet  work,  veneers,  electri- 
cal instrument  bases  and  interior  finish.  The  tree  that  furnishes  cherry  lumber 
is  Wild  Black  Cherry  {Prufius  seroHna),  growing  from  Ontario  to  Florida 
and  from  Dakota  to  Texas.  It  grows  commonly  as  a  shrub  and  as  a  tree  from 
30  to  100  ft.  high  with  a  trunk  from  6  inches  to  4  ft.  in  diameter.  The  wood 
is  light  reddish  brown,  turning  darker  with  age.  The  common  deep  red 
color  is  given  it  by  stain. 

Sweet  Gum  is  a  tree  now  of  great  economic  value,  the 
SWEET  GUM  wood  being  used  for  cabinet  work,  interior  finish,  fancy 
boxes,  log  turned  basket  and  box  veneers,  cooperage  and 
to  some  extent  for  building.  The  tree  is  common  from  New  Jersey  to  Florida 
and  from  Missouri  to  southern  Me.xico.  It  is  also  called  Bibsted,  Red  Gum 
and  Hazel  {Liquidatnbar  styracijhta).  The  trees  grow  from  100  to  150'ft. 
high  with  a  diameter  of  trunk  from  4  to  6  ft.  The  wood  is  not  heavy  nor 
hard,  and  is  of  a  light  brown  color. 

Oregon  Alder  is  a  tree  of  the  Pacific  Coast,  from  Alaska 
OREGON  ALDER     to  California.     The  wood  is  extensively  used  for  cabinet 
work,  carriage  bodies  and  interior  finish  {Alnus  orc- 
gana).      The  wood  is  light  reddish  brown,  hard  and  durable. 

Imported  Woods  are  almost  all  from  tro[)ical  countries.  They  are 
generally  valuable  because  of  their  beauty  of  color  and  grain. 

Mahogany  is  preferred  to  most  other  woods  for  cabinet  work, 

MAHOGANY     and  for  a  great  variety  of  purposes.      It  is  generally  easily 

worked,  and  is  often  of  a  beautiful  color  and  figure.      It  is 

used  for  musical  instruments,  fine  furniture,  the  best  interior  finish  in  houses, 

cars  and  the  cabins  of  shi])s,  for  turner\-,  tool  handles,  inlaying,  parquetry 


WOODS  45 


floors,  electrical  instruments,  cameras  and  jewel  boxes.  The  deep  red  color 
of  mahogany  seen  in  piano  cases,  etc. ,  is  given  it  by  stain.  This  is  still  deep- 
ened by  the  wood  becoming  darker  with  age. 

American  Mahogany  is  the  common  mahogany  and  g^ows  in  the  West 
Indies,  Central  and  northern  .South  America.  The  best  comes  from  Tabasco 
in  Mexico  and  from  Santo  Domingo;  very  good  from  Yucatan,  Cuba,  etc., 
and  inferior  kinds  from  Honduras  and  further  south.  It  is  also  called  Bay 
Wood  and  Caoba  (SicfeUnia  mahogoni).  The  trees  grow  50  to  150  ft.  high, 
with  trunks  i  to  4  ft.  in  diameter.  The  wood  varies  from  pinkish  white  to 
reddish  brown,  and  from  moderately  soft  to  hard. 

African  Mahogany  grows  throughout  the  tropical  west  coast  and  inland. 
It  is  called  Khaya  {R'haya  senegalerisis) .  The  wood  is  yellowish  brown, 
hard,  heavy  and  strong  and  often  beautifully  figured.  It  is  largely  imported 
into  Europe. 

Cigar- Box  Cedar  is  perhaps  the  most  common  and  useful 
CIGAR-BOX     wood  of    the  West  Indies,  Central  America  and  northern 

CEDAR  South  America.  It  is  used  for  all  kinds  of  general  con- 
struction, for  boats,  boxes,  building,  cheap  and  fine  furniture, 
cooperage,  and  is  largely  e.xported  to  the  United  States  and  Europe  for  cigar 
boxes  and  for  furniture.  Much  of  the  so-called  mahogany  furniture  at  this 
time  is  made  of  selected  dark  "  Cedro  "  often  figured,  though  it  may  be  dis- 
tinguished by  the  larger  pits  in  the  grain.  It  is  also  known  as  West  Indian 
Cedar  {^Ccdrela  odorata).  The  wood  is  light,  soft,  v&cy  easily  worked, 
colored  from  light  yellowish  to  brown,  and  is  very  fragrant. 

There  are  several  species  of  so-called  mahogany  in  Australia,  the  woods 
of  which  are  dark  red,  often  figured,  hard,  strong  and  durable,  and  they  are 
extensively  used  locally  and  e.xported.  The  most  important  of  these  are  as 
follows : 

Jarrah  (^Eucalyptus  ntarginatd)  grows  in  southwestern  Australia. 

Swamp  Mahogany  grows  in  New  South  Wales  and  is  also  called  Red 
Mahogany  (^Eucalyptus  robusta). 

Forest  Mahogany  is  found  in  eastern  Australia  and  is  also  known  as  Red 
and  Gray  Gum  and  Hickory  {Eucalyptus  resitiifcra). 

Moulmein  Cedar  is  closely  allied  to  true  mahogany.  The  wood  is  very- 
similar,  but  softer  and  generally  darker  red.  It  has  a  great  variety  of  uses 
and  is  exported  largely.  It  is  a  native  of  India,  Java,  the  Philippines  and 
Australia.  In  India  it  is  also  called  Chitagong  Wood  and  Indian  Mahogany 
and  in  Australia,  Red  and  Pencil  Cedar  {Cedrela  toona). 

Teak  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  all  woods.  It  is  native  in 
TEAK  India,  Burma,  Siam,  the  Malayan  Islands  and  the  Philippines, 
and  is  extensively  exported  to  Europe  and  occasionally  to  the 
United  States.  It  is  the  best  timber  for  ship  building  and  for  backing  of 
armor  plates,  since  it  does  not,  like  oak,  corrode  the  iron.  It  is  used  for 
piling  and  wharfage,  and  is  also  largely  used  for  railroad  cars,  flooring,  gun 
stocks  and  furniture.      The  trees  (Teclona grandis)  grow  80  to  100  ft.  high 


46  COMMERCIAL   RAW   MATERIAIi; 

with  trunks  2  to  4  ft.  in  diameter.      The  wood  is  hght  brown,  open  grained, 
easily  worked,  somewhat  oil\- and  fragrant,  and  very  durable. 

Certain  fancy  woods,  \aluable  entirely  because  of  .their  beauty  of 
color  and  grain,  are  brought  into  the  United  States  and  Europe  and  used  for 
musical  instruments,  inlay  work,  brush  backs,  jewel  bo.xes,  knife  and  other 
handles,  turnery  and  sometimes  for  fine  furniture. 

Ebony  is  found  in  tropical  countries  throughout  the  world,  the 
EBONY     blackest  coming  from  Cuba,  but  now  nearly  exhausted,  the  most 

common,  from  the  Gaboon  coast.  West  Africa,  and  \'ery  excel- 
lent from  Madagascar,  the  Philippines,  Bombay,  Ceylon  and  Siam.  It  is  for 
the  most  part  a  medium  sized  tree  with  broad  white  sapwood.  The  black 
heart  comes  into  market  in  small  logs.  There  are  several  species  {Dio- 
spyros,  etc. ) . 

Rosewood  or  Jacaranda  grows  in  South  America  and  is  sup- 
ROSEWOOD     posed  to  come  from  several  trees  (species  of  Dalbergia  and 
Mat/iacriufu).     The  wood  is  bright  brown  with  black  grain. 
A  commercial  rose  oil  is  distilled  from  it. 

Other  fancy  woods  are:  Cocobolo,  from  Central  America,  bright  red  and 
black;  Granadillo,  a  similar  wood;  Tulip  wood,  from  Brazil,  red  and  yellow; 
Amaranth,  or  Purple  Heart,  from  South  America,  deep  purple  on  exposure 
to  light;  Padauk,  called  also  Vermillion,  Redwood  and  Indian  Mahogany, 
from  China,  Burma,  Malaysian  Islands  and  the  Philippines;  Indian  Satin 
wood  from  India  and  Ceylon,  deep  yellow;  Prima  \'era,  called  also  White 
Mahogany,  from  Mexico  and  Central  America,  light  yellow;  and  Olive  wood, 
of  the  Mediterranean  countries,  from  which  tree  also  comes  the  olive  fruit, 
an  extensive  article  of  commerce,  used  as  a  table  delicacy,  and  supplying 
olive  oil. 

Other  tropical  woods  are  imported  because  they  are  suited  by  color, 
hardness  and  strength  for  many  special  purposes.  These  are:  Rule  Box- 
wood, from  the  West  Indies  and  South  America,  the  bright  yellow  wood 
used  for  rules,  handles  and  inlaying;  Lignum  \'itae,  from  the  West  Indies, 
the  hard,  oily,  greenish-brown  heart  and  yellow  sapwood  used  for  pulley 
blocks,  bearings,  tool  handles  and  caster  wheels;  Green-heart,  from  South 
and  Central  America  and  the  West  Indies,  used  for  handles,  brush  backs  and 
fishing  rods,  and  Lancewood,  from  Jamacia,  used  for  bows  and  fishing  rods. 

There  are  certain  Australian  woods  used  for  general  purposes  of  con- 
struction besides  those  already  mentioned.  Red  Gum  is  from  eastern 
Australia  and  the  Murray  River.  The  wood  is  hard,  tough,  strong  and  deep 
red,  and  is  used  for  heavy  construction.  Allied  to  it  are  several  other 
species  of  so-called  gum,  ironbark,  tallow  wood,  etc.,  all  belonging  to  Eu- 
calyptus species.  From  the  leaves  of  most  of  these  trees  Eucalyptus  oil  is 
or  may  be  extracted  for  medicinal  use.  Other  woods  are:  Honey-suckle, 
from  southern  Australia,  prized  for  decoration  and  appearing  much 
like  Sycamore  of  the  United  States;  so-called  Oak,  which  is  not  an  oak; 


WOODS 


47 


Blackwood,  which  is  similar  to  Walnut;   Black  Bean  and  W'hite  Cedar,  allied 
to  Mahogany. 

When  wood  is  heated  in  a  retort,  \arious  gases  are  driven 
DISTILLATION     off.      Some  of  these  gases,   when  passed  through  cooled 
OF  WOOD         pipes,  become  condensed  into  a  liquid,  and  charcoal  is 
left  in  the  retort.      This  process  is  called  distillation.      By 
re-distillation  and  treatment  with  certain  chemicals,  the  liquid  may  be  made 
to  yield  a  variety  of  useful  substances  as  is  shown  in  the  accompanying -dia- 
gram.     Oak,  maple,  birch,  beech  and  pine  are  the  kinds  usually  distilled. 


WOOD 


Charcoal 


Liquid 


Gas 


Pyroligneous  acid 
or  wood  vinegar 


Tar 


I  Creosote 
\  Pitch 


Crude  wood  spirits 


Acetates 


I 

[    Tar 


Ammonia 
Wood  alcohol 
Acetone 

Acetate  of  lime 
Sugar  of  lead 

— Alum  mordants 
Acetic  acid 
Acetone 

— chloroform 


Uses  of  Products. 

Charcoal^-Fuel,  filtering,  gunpowder,  etc. 

Gas — Fuel,  illuminant. 

Ammonia — Medicine,  household  uses,  chemical  manufacture. 

Wood  alcohol — Denaturing  alcohol,  aniline  color  making,  varnishes, 
burning,  methylated  ether,  formaldehyde,  etc. 

Acetate  of   Lime — Dyeing,  calico  printing. 

Mordants — Dyeing. 

Acetates- — Calico  printing. 

Acetic  Acid — Chemical  manufacture.  So-called  "Banana  Oil,"  a  de- 
rivative from  acetic  acid,  is  used  in  varnishes  and  paints. 

Acetone — Chloroform,  iodoform,  sulphonal,  smokeless  powder. 

Chloroform — Anaesthetic,  solvent  for  resins,  etc. 

Creosote — Antiseptic,  medicine,  preser\ative. 

Tar — Protection  of  wood  against  decay ;  tar  paper. 

Pitch — Shipbuilding,  roofing,  etc. 

For  smoking  meats  and  fish,  beech,  oak  and  mahogany  are  chiefly  used. 

Potash  is  obtained  by  dissolving  it  out  of  wood  ashes,  formerly  almost 
the  only  source  of  this  important  chemical.  Potash  is  now  prepared  by 
chemical  processes  from  various  materials.      (See  Potash  salts.) 

Vegetable  matters,  such  as  sawdust,  straw  or  bran,  when  heated  with 
caustic  potash,  form  o.xalates,  which  on  treatment  with  sulphuric  acid,  vield 
o.xalic  acid.      This  acid  and  its  salts  are  used  chiefly  in  bleaching  and  dyeing. 


^8  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 


GUMS  AND  RESINS. 

Gums  and  resins  arc  usually  formed  by  the  drying  of  sap  on  reaching 
the  air  through  fissures  or  incisions  in  the  bark,  or  by  the  transformation  of 
plant  tissues.  Some  are  obtained  by  artificial  drying  or  distillation  of  sap. 
Many  resinous  extracts  are  taken  from  barks,  woods,  or  other  parts  of  plants, 
usually  by  dissolving  the  soluble  matter  in  water. 

True  gums  form  a  mucilage  with  water  and  are  insoluble  in  alcohol. 
They  are  chiefly  used  in  stiffening  silk  and  cotton  fabrics,  in  calico  printing, 
in  making  cordials  and  confectionery,  in  mucilage,  printing  ink,  and 
medicines.  Many  other  substances  are  commonly  called  gums,  such  as 
resins,  copals,  rubber,  camphor,  lac,  etc. 

Resins  are  harder  than  gums,  insoluble  in  water,  and  are  mostly  used  in 
making  \arnishes  by  dissohing  them  in  turpentine  and  linseed  oil  or  in  spirits. 
Gum-resins  are  usually  fragrant  and  are  used  for  medicines  and  as  incense. 
Oleo-resins  and  balsams,  like  crude  turpentine,  lacquer  and  Peruvian  balsam, 
are  thick  liquids  generally  obtained  by  tapping  trees  and  preparing  the  sap. 
Gum  Arabic  is  obtained  from  small  thorny  trees  {Acacia 
GUM  ARABIC     species)  which   grow  in  dry  sandy  districts    in    Arabia, 
Egypt,  Kordofan,  and  the  adjacent  country.      Gum  Sene- 
gal is  of  somewhat  inferior  quality  and  comes  from  similar  trees  in  northwest 
Africa  in  the   region   of    the  Senegal   ri\er.      Gums,  like  gum   arabic,  are 
obtained  from  acacia  trees  in  other  countries,  for  example,  Morocco  or  Bar- 
bary  gum.  Cape  gum  from  South  Africa,  and  Wattle  gum  from  Australia. 
These  gums,  like  most  others,  are  sorted  over  according  to  size,  color,  and 
purity  and  come  on  the  market  in  different  grades. 
Dextrine  is  an  artificial  gum.      (See  Dextrine.) 

Gum  Tragacanth  comes  from  the  stems  of  low  thorny 

GUM  shrubs  (Astragalus  species)  which  grow  in  Asia  Minor, 

TRAGACANTH      Persia,  Syria,  and  Armenia.      The  secretion  of  this  gum 

is  often  increased  by  the  natives  through  injuring  the  bark. 

It  is  found  on  the  market  usually  as  "  flake  tragacanth"  in  thin  flat  pieces, 

dull  white  in  color,  and  marked  with  wavy  lines  which  show  the  successive 

flow  of  the  gum  from  the  tree. 

Gums  are  obtained  also  from  the  mesquite  tree  (Prosopis  species),  in 
Mexico,  and  occasionally  from  cherry,  peach,  plum,  and  other  fruit  trees. 

Gelatine,  having  much  the  same  composition  and  properties 

GELATINE     as  gum  and  used  for  similar  purposes,  is  obtained  by  boiling 

certain  sea  weeds.      The  most  important  sea-weed  gelatine, 

'■  agar  agar,"  comes  from  China,  Japan,  India,  and  the  neighboring  islands. 

Irish  moss,  or  dulce,  is  a  gelatinous  sea  weed  used  for  food. 

Other  similar  mucilaginous  substances,  gelatines,  and  glues,  are  made 
from  bones,  horns,  and  slaughter  house  wastes.      (See  Animal  Products.) 

Copals  are  natural  hard  resins  which  are  found  in  \arious  parts  of  the 
world  and  are  used  in  making  \arnishes.      They  usually  ha\e  to  be  melted  or 


GUMS  AND  RESINS  4.9 


distilled  to  make  them  soluble  in  turpentine  or  alcohol.  Many  copals  are 
found  in  the  earth,  usually  at  a  depth  of  not  more  than  a  few  feet,  in  places 
where  extensive  forests  once  grew. 

Zanzibar  Copal   is   the  hardest  of  this  .tfroup.      It  is  found 
ZANZIBAR     along  the  Zanzibar  coast,  in  Mozambique.     Some  comes  from 
COPAL        living  trees  (  Trachylobiiim  species),  but  the  hardest  and  best 
is  the  fossil  variety  which  is  dug  from  the  ground.      When 
first  dug,  the  resin  is  covered  with  a  sandy  reddish  crust,  which  is  either 
scraped  off,  or  dissolved  away  by  a  solution  of  soda  or  potash,  leaving  the 
copal  with  a  facetted  surface,  called  the  ' '  goose-skin. ' '     This  is  characteristic 
of  the  best  grades  of  Zanzibar  copal.      F"actories  for  the  cleaning  and  wash- 
ing of  copal  were  formerly  situated  at  Salem,  Mass. ,  so  that  this  grade  is 
often  called  Salem  copal.     Sandarusi  copal,  Mozambique  copal,  Sierra  Leone 
copal    or  Flint   copal.  West   African   copal,  Benguela  copal,  Angola  gum, 
Muccocota  g^m,  Loango  gum,  American   copal,  Anime,    Courbaril   copal, 
Accra  copal,  and  Manila  copal  are  names  applied  to  similar  resins  of  \ary- 
ing  hardness  from  different  localities. 

Kauri  Copal,  or  gum,  is  softer  than  Zanzibar  copal.  It 
KAURI  COPAL  is  obtained  in  New  Zealand  and  New  Caledonia,  some  of 
it  from  living  trees  {Agathis  species);  but  a  much  larger 
quantity  is  dug  from  the  ground,  where  it  occurs  at  a  depth  of  from  a  few 
inches  to  ten  feet.  The  lumps  are  usually  only  an  inch  or  two  in  diameter, 
but  some  have  been  found  weighing  a  hundred  pounds.  The  tree  which 
yields  this  resin  belongs  to  the  pine  family  and  attains  a  height  of  80  to  100 
feet  and  a  diameter  of  3  to  8  feet  or  more.  The  timber  resembles  yellow 
pine  and  in  New  Zealand  is  used  for  many  purposes. 

Gum  Dammar  includes  commercially  several  kinds  of 
GUM  DAMMAR     resins  from  southeastern  Asia.      The  true  dammar  comes 
from  a  tree  {Shorca  species)  in  Sumatra.      Mi.xed  with 
turpentine  it  makes  a  very  clear  and  valuable  varnish. 

Sandarack  resin  from  northwest  Africa,  and  Mastic  from  the  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean,  are  similar  in  nature  and  are  also  used  in  varnishes. 

Benzoin  is  a  fragrant  resin  from  Siam,  Java  and  Sumatra,  used  chiefly 
for  incense. 

Asafoetida  is  a  gum-resin  obtained  in  Afghanistan  from  the  roots  of  a 
plant  {Scorodosma /(cHdum) .  It  is  much  used  in  medicines  and  as  a  condi- 
ment, especially  in  Worcestershire  sauce. 

Myrrh  and  Olibanunn,  or  frankincense,  are  fragrant  gum-resins  from 
Arabia  used  for  incense  and  in  medicine. 

Gum  ammoniacum  is  a  gum-resin  used  in  medicine. 

Aloes  is  the  dried  juice  of  certain  plants  (Aloe  species)  used  in 
medicine. 

Guiac  or  gum  guaiacum  is  a  medicinal  resin  from  the  lignum  vita-  tree. 

Dragon's  blood  is  a  red  resin  used  in  medicine  and  for  varnish. 

Kino  is  a  dried  juice  used  in  tanning  and  dyeing. 


50  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 

(See  Quebracho  extract  and  other  substances  used  in  tannine;  and 
dyeing.      See  Lac,  Shellac,  Turpentine,  Rosin,  etc. ) 

Japanese  lacquer  is  obtained  from  the  sap  of  a  small  tree  (Rlius 
vemicifera),  the  berries  of  which  furnish  wax.  Varnishes  having  similar 
qualities  are   manufactured  by  mi.xing  turpentine  with  various  resins. 

Peru  balsam,  tolu  balsam,  copaiba  balsam,  and  liquid  stora.x  are  all 
obtained  from  the  saps  of  certain  trees  and  are  chiefly  used  in  medicine. 

Gamboge  or  "gummi  gutti "  is  obtained  in  Cambodia  by  tapping 
trees  (Garcinia  morella)  and  collecting  the  yellow  sap  in  joints  of  bamboo, 
where  it  hardens.  It  is  used  in  medicine  and  in  coloring  \arnishes  and 
making  water  colors. 

Rubber  is  an  elastic  substance  produced  from  the  milky  juice 

RUBBER     of    certain   trees   and   vines  which  grow   in  tropical   regions. 

More  than  half  of  the  world's  supply  of  rubber  comes  from  the 

valley  of  the  Amazon  river.      Africa,  the  East  Indies,  Mexico,  and  Central 

America  are  the  other  chief  sources. 

The  most  important  rubber  plants  are  the  Brazilian  or  Para  rubber  tree 
{Hevea  brasiliensis),  the  Central  American  rubber  tree  {Castilloa  elastica),    ' 
the  East  Indian  rubber  tree  {Fiais  elastica)  and  the  rubber  vines  of  Afric^ 
{Landolphia  species). 

"  Rubber  milk"  is  usually  obtained  by  making  incisions  in  the  bark 
and  catching  the  milky  juice  or  "latex"  in  small  cups  as  it  flows  out.  It 
resembles  cream  in  density  and  appearance  and  is  composed  essentially  of 
globules  of  rubber  floating  in  water.  The  globules  are  coagulated  by  processes 
which  differ  in  various  places.  In  Brazil  the  finest  grade  Para  rubber  is 
prepared  by  pouring  the  latex  on  a  stick  or  paddle  and  drying  it  over  a 
smoky  fire.  As  soon  as  the  layer  of  rubber  is  dry,  more  milk  is  poured 
on,  and  another  layer  formed,  until  the  lump  of  rubber  weighs  several 
pounds.  In  other  places  the  milk  is  allowed  to  dry  on  the  trees  or  is  co- 
agulated by  boiling,  or  by  adding  alcohol,  sulphuric  acid,  lemon  juice,  or 
salt  water,  or  in  one  of  many  other  ways.  Rubber  is  graded  commercially 
according  to  the  country  or  district  of  origin  and  according  to  its  quality. 
In  the  crude  state  it  usually  contains  much  dirt,  sand,  gravel,  bark,  etc. 
For  use  it  must  be  cleaned  by  softening,  grinding,  and  washing.  It  is  too 
soft  and  sticky  for  most  purposes  when  pure,  and  is,  therefore,  mixed  or 
compounded  with  various  materials.  When  combined  with  a  small  per  cent, 
of  sulphur  with  the  assistance  of  heat,  it  becomes  ' '  vulcanized  ' '  and  is  more 
elastic,  less  soluble,  and  will  stand  more  heat  or  cold  without  becoming 
sticky  or  brittle,  than  pure  rubber.  Red  rubber  is  vulcanized  by  heating  the 
crude  material  with  a  sulphide  of  antimony.  Lamp  black  is  added  in  making 
black  rubber.  Hard  rubber,  ebonite,  or  vulcanite,  is  prepared  by  vulcaniz- 
ing rubber  with  as  much  as  25  per  cent,  of  sulphur,  making  it  hard  and 
horny.  Substitutes  and  adulterants  for  rubber  are  made  by  heating  oils,  such 
as  cotton,  linseed,  rape,  corn,  or  castor  oil  with  sulphur.  Rubber  enters 
into  the  manufacture  of  almost  innumerable  substances,  among  which  the 
following   may  be   nientioned:   soft  or  vulcanized  rubber-bands,  threads  for 


LIBRARY 

STATE  NVRHAL  SCHI', 
M'.NUAL  ABTS  AND  HOME  € 
■»ANTA  ■RBARA,  CALIF 


GUMS  AND  RESINS 


^XlV/ 


51 


elastic  cloth,  toys,  shoes,  boots,  tires,  tubing^,  hose,  cushions,  water  proof 
cloth,  printing  rolls,  stamps,  stoppers,  etc.;  of  hard  rubber:  combs,  brushes, 
handles,  electrical  instruments  and  other  machinery,  surgical  and  toilet  appli- 
ances, buttons,  trays,  and  \essels  for  holding  corrosive  chemicals.  Rubber 
is  used  in  grinding-wheels  as  a  cement  to  hold  the  particles  of  the  abrasive 
together,  in  floor  cloths,  cements,  and  some  varnishes. 

Gutta-Percha  is  a  plant  product  similar  to  rufiber.      It 

GUTTA-PERCHA     is  obtained  from   the  milky  juice  of  a  number  of  trees 

belonging  to  the  .Sapota  family  {Sapoiaccac),  found  in 

the   East  Indies,   the  Malay  peninsula  and  some  other  tropical  countries. 

The  principal  j)ort  of    shipment  of  crude  gutta-percha   is   Singa])oro.      The 

gutta-percha  is  usually  obtained  by  cutting  down  the  trees,  removing  narrow 

strips  of  the  bark  and  collecting  the  milky  juice  that  flows  from  the  wounds. 

It  soon  thickens  and  hardens.      It  is  then  put  into  a  pot  of  boiling  water  and 

becomes  so  soft  that  it  can  be  kneaded  and  pressed  into  a  compact  mass. 

The  crude  commercial  material  is  purified  by  grinding  in  hot  water,  by  which 

the  chips,  bark,  and  sand  are  removed.     The  plastic  mass  is  then  rolled  into 

thin  sheets  or  formed  into  threads  and  rolled  into  balls  and  pressed.      At  the 

I      ordinary  temperature  gutta-percha  is  compact,  pliant,  tough,  and  but  slightly 

elastic.     At  194°  F.  it  becomes  plastic,  so  that  it  can  be  kneaded  and  brought 

into  any  desired  shape,  which  it  retains  unaltered  when  brought  back  to  the 

'^   ordinary  temperature.      It  is  not  nearly  so  sensitive  to  cold  as  rubber,  a 

temperature  of   14°  F.  not  altering  it. 

No  other  plastic  substance  has  so  great  an  electrical  resistance,  and  in 
the  ground  or  in  the  water  gutta-percha  retains  this  property  unaltered.  It 
is  this  property  that  gives  gutta-percha  its  most  important  use — as  an  insu- 
lating material  for  electrical  wires,  especially  for  submarine  and  under- 
ground cables. 

Gutta-percha  is  especially  useful  for  articles  e.xposed  to  moisture,  damp, 
cold,  and  acids,  and  for  that  reason  is  employed  in  the  form  of  hose  for  con- 
ducting cold  water,  beer,  wine,  and  acids;  for  belts  running  in  wet  places;  for 
buckets,  ladles,  bottles,  siphons,  and  spigots  in  chemical  factories. 

Balata  is  very  similar  to  gutta-percha  and  comes  from  Guiana.     Gutta 
^1  joolatong,  another  substance   of    the  same  kind,  has   come  on  the  market 
within  a  few  years  and  is  obtained  in  the  East  Indies. 

Chicle  or  crude  chewing  gum  is  obtained  by  boiling  the  milky 

CHICLE     juice  of  a  tree   { Arhras  sapota)   which  grows  in  Mexico  and 

Central  America.      Yucatan  produces  nearly  the  entire  supply 

'^    of  chicle,  and  exports  all  of  it  to  the  United  States.      For  the  preparation  of 

chewing  gum  the  chicle  is  dried,  washed,  mixed  with  glucose,  parafifine,  or 

^  other   materials,  flavored,  rolled  out  into  thin  sheets,  and  put  up  in  small 

packages  for  sale. 
c>i  Many  other  plants,  such  as  our  common  milkweed,  produce  milky  saps 

^  which  when  dried  yield  substances  more  or  less  like  rubber  or  gutta-percha. 
*"The  juice  of  the  cow  tree  when  fresh  is  much  like  cow's  milk. 


52 


COMMERCIAI-  RAW  MATERIALS 


OILS,  FATS  AND  WAXES. 

The  seeds  and  fruits  ui  many  plants  arc  rich  in  oil,  this  being  the  con- 
centrated form  in  which  nutriment  is  stored  for  the  early  growth  of  the 
young  plant.  Nearly  all  animals  possess  fats  capable  of  being  rendered  into 
oil  and  usually  stored  in  the  abdominal  cavity  or  in  a  layer  under  the  skin. 
These  oils  are  called  fatty  oils  and  differ  from  petroleum  or  other  mineral 
oils  and  from  essential  oils  in  the  fact  that  they  may  be  saponified. 

Vegetable  oils  are  obtained  by  crushing  the  seeds  by  powerful  machin- 
ery, thus  pressing  out  the  oil  and  leaving  oil  cake  behind.  They  are  some- 
times e.xtracted  by  dissolving  in  carbon  bisulphide  or  other  chemicals. 

Oils  are  used  for  table  purposes,  for  cooking,  soap  making,  lubricating, 
illuminating,  mixing  paints  and  varnishes,  in  dyeing,  in  preparing  skins  and 
leathers,  in  medicine,  and  for  other  purposes. 

Oils  are  of  two  important  kinds,  drying  oils,  which,  like  linseed,  evap- 
orate and  oxidize,  forming  a  varnish-like  substance,  and  non-drying  oils,  like 
olive  oil.  Some  oils  (fats)  like  palm  oil,  Japan  wax,  and  tallow  are  solid  at 
ordinary  temperatures.  For  lubricating  purposes  some  non-drying  oils  are 
"blown"  bypassing  air  through  the  heated  oil,  rendering  it  thicker  and 
more  viscous. 

In  soap  making,  a  fatty  oil  is  heated  and  there  is  added  to  it  a  weak 
solution  of  alkali,  such  as  caustic  soda  (lye)  or  caustic  potash,  whicli  unites 
chemically  with  the  oil,  forming  soap  and  glycerine.  Soap  being  insoluble 
in  brine,  salt  is  then  added  and  the  soap  rises  to  the  top  of  the  kettle,  while 
the  brine  with  the  glycerine  is  drawn  off  from  below.  The  soap  is  then  ' 
purified  and  usually  mixed  with  coloring  and  scenting  ingredients.  Mineral 
matters,  such  as  sand  and  pumice,  are  added  in  making  scouring  soaps. 
Rosin  can  also  be  saponified  and  is  much  used  with  oils  in  soap  making,  as 
are  also  certain  w^axes.  Candles  are  made  from  natural  solid  fats  and  waxes, 
and  from  prepared  oils  by  a  process  similar  to  soap  making. 

Glycerine  is  obtained  as  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of 
GLYCERINE     soaps  and  candles.      It  is  used  in  pharmacy,  in  various  in- 
dustrial processes,  and  very  largely  in  the  manufacture  of 
nitro-glycerine  and  dynamite. 

Olive  Oil  comes  from  countries  bordering  the  Mediterranean 
OLIVE  OIL     and  in  small  amount  from  Mexico  and  southern  California. 
It  is  obtained  by  pressing  the  fruit  of  the  olive  tree  ( 0/ea 
europcta).      Ripe  olives,  containing  from  30  t(?  50  per  cent,  of  oil,  are  first 
pressed  lightly,  yielding  a  small  amount  of  the  best  quality  oil.      Crushing 
the  flesh  with  greater  pressure  yields  more  oil,  and  a  third  pressure  of  the 
pressed  cake  after  treatment  with  hot  water,  yields  an  oil  of  poorer  qualit)'. 
Olive  oil  is  used  for  food,  for  soap  making,  lubricating,  and  burning.      It  is  fre- 
quently adulterated  with  other  oils  such  as  cotton  seed,  peanut,  sesame,  etc. 
Castor  Oil  is  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  a  plant  (yRicinus 
CASTOR  OIL     fommiinis)   which  grows  throughout    tropical    countries. 
India  produces  the  most  seeds  for  commerce.      The  seeds 
contain  more  than  half  their  weight  of  oil,  which  is  used  in  medicine,  in   the 


OILS  AND  FATS  53 


manufacture  of  celluloid,  oilcloth,  artificial  leather,  for  soap  making;  and 
lubricatiny;.  Perhaps  the  lary^est  amount  of  castor  oil  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  textiles,  especially  for  making  "  turkey  red  oil,"  which  is  employed 
for  preparing  cotton  goods  for  dyeing  with  coal  tar  colors. 

Turkey  Red  Oil  is  prepared  by  treating  castor  oil  with  sulphuric 

TURKEY     acid.      It   is  unlike  the  original  oil  in  being  soluble  in,  or  mi.\- 

RED  OIL     ing  readily  with   water.      Olive  oil  or  cotton  oil  is  often  used 

instead  of  castor  oil.      Fabrics  treated  with  turkey  red  oil  can 

be  dyed  with   certain   colors    by   which    they  are    unaffected   before    such 

treatment. 

Peanut  Oil  is  obtained  from  the  common  peanut  ( Aracliis 
PEANUT  OIL     hypogaea).      The  nuts,  or  seeds,  are  raised  extensively  in 
West  Africa  and  India  and  are  pressed  in  France.      The 
oil  is  used  for  soap  making  and  as  a  substitute  for  olive  oil.      In  making  pea- 
nut butter  the  nuts  are  simply  ground  up,  but  not  pressed. 

Palm  Oil  comes  from  West  Africa  and  is  obtained  from  the 

PALM  OIL     pulp  which  covers  the  seeds  of  the  oil  palm  {Elaeis guine- 

etisis).     It  is  yellowish  or  reddish  in  color,  of  the  consistency 

of  butter,  and  is  used  for  making  soap  and  candles,  and  for  coating  sheet  iron 

in  the  manufacture  of  tin-plate.      Palm  kernel  oil  is  pressed  from  the  kernels 

of  the  same  fruits. 

Almond  oil,  rape  oil,  sesame  oil,  walnut  oil,  poppy  seed  oil,  sunflower 
oil,  .soy  bean  oil,  and  vegetable  tallow  are  a  few  of  the  great  number  of 
other  vegetable  oils. 

(See  Corn  oil.  Cotton  oil,  Linseed  oil.  Hem])  oil,  Cocoanut  oil.  Cocoa 
butter.      See  also  Animal  oils  and  Petroleum.; 

ESSENTIAL  OILS. 

Essential  Oils,  or  volatile  oils,  unlike  the  fatty  oils  do  not  form  soap  on 
treatment  with  alkalis.  They  are  obtained  in  small  quantities  from  flowers, 
leaves,  or  other  parts  of  plants  usually  by  distillation  with  water.  Some,  like 
orange  and  lemon  oil,  are  pressed  from  the  rinds  of  fruits.  Those  from  flowers 
are  obtained  by  a  process  called  enfleurage  which  consists  in  absorbing  the 
perfume  from  the  flowers  in  lard,  beef  fat  or  olive  oil.  The  perfume  is  then 
extracted  from  the  fat  or  "  pomade  "  by  solution  in  alcohol.  Essential  oils 
are  mostly  used  in  perfumery,  for  flavoring,  and  in  medicine.  The  best 
known  examples  of  this  group  are  turpentine  and  camjihor,  but  these  are 
not  popularly  known  as  essential  oils. 

The  following  are  important: — attar  of  roses,  patchouli,  oils  of  lavender, 
bergamot,  bitter  orange,  violet,  geranium,  tuberose,  bitter  almonds,  cedar, 
hemlock,  spruce,  wintergreen,  mint,  sassafras,  birch,  cloves,  lemon,  orange, 
peppermint,  citronella,  lemon  grass,  \etiver,  anise,  fennel,  caraway,  cumin, 
rosemary,  thyme,  coriander,  wormwood,  ylang-ylang,  sandal  wood,  cin- 
namon, bay,  etc. 


54 


COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 


Menthol,  produced  in  Ja])an,  is  deposited  in  crystals  on  cooliny;  oil  of 
peppermint. 

Witch-hazel  extract,  used  medicinally,  is  obtained  by  distilling  young 
twigs  of  witch  hazel  with  dilute  alcohol. 

Musk  and  ambergris  are  animal  substances  used  as  perfumes. 

Oil  of  mirbane  and  other  perfumes  are  obtained  from  coal  tar,  and  many 
of  these  are  identical  in  composition  and  have  the  same  odors  as  essential 
oils  obtained  directly  from  vegetable  substances. 

Camphor  is  strictly  not  a  gum,  but  a  solid  volatile  oil  obtained 
CAM  PHOR  from  the  wood  of  the  camphor  tree  (  Cinnamottium  camphora) . 
Formosa  is  the  source  of  nearly  all  of  the  camphor  of  com- 
merce, although  a  little  is  obtained  from  Japan,  China,  and  Borneo.  To 
obtain  camphor,  the  wood  of  the  tree  is  cut  up  into  small  chips  which  are 
distilled  with  water.  The  camphor  is  condensed  and  later  purified.  It  is 
used  in  medicines,  as  a  protection  against  insects,  and  to  a  very  large  e.\tent 
in  the  manufacture  of  celluloid  and  of  smokeless  powder. 

(See  Napthaline  or  tar  camphor.  ) 

WAXES. 

Under  waxes  may  be  grouped  beeswax  and  all  substances  resembling  it 
sufficiently  to  be  used  as  substitutes  for  it.  Cheap  waxes  are  very  commonly 
used  to  adulterate  those  of  higher  grade. 

Sealing  wax,  shoemaker's  wax,  and  grafting  wax  are  prepared  resinous 
substances. 

(See  Beeswax,  Tallow,  Spermaceti,  and  Paraffine.  ) 

Myrtleberry  or   Bayberry  Wax    is   found   coating   the 
MYRTLEBERRY     fruits  of    several  species   of    myrtle   bushes   (^Myrica) 
WAX  indigenous  to   the  United   States,   Central  and   South 

America,  Cape  Colony,  etc.  It  is  obtained  by  plung- 
ing the  berries  in  hot  water  and  skimming  off  the  wax  which  rises  to  the 
surface.  It  has  a  greenish  color  and  a  pleasant  balsamic  odor.  It  is  chiefly 
used  in  combination  with  beeswax  for  making  candles. 

Japan  Wax  is  a  hard,  wa.x-like  fat  obtained  from  the  fruits 
JAPAN  WAX  of  several  species  of  Rhus  found  growing  in  Japan  (par- 
ticularly Rhus  S2(ccedatica  and  vernicifera,  the  tree  which 
yields  Japanese  lacquer  j.  It  is  chiefly  used  for  the  manufacture  of  candles, 
wax  matches,  waxed  paper,  and  as  a  furniture  polish.  In  Japan  it  is  used  to 
give  a  polish  to  cotton  cloths,  for  making  dolls  and  models,  as  well  as  for 
lubricating  and  soap  making. 

Wax  forms  a  coating  on  the  leaves  of  several  palms. 
Carnauba  Wax,  which  comes  from  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  of  a 
palm  in  Brazil,  is  rapidly  gaining  in  commercial  importance. 

Chinese  Insect  Wax,  or  pela  wax,  is  secreted  by  an  insect  (^Coccus 
pela)  and  deposited  on  twigs.  It  is  used  in  China  for  candles,  for  polishing 
wood  and  leather,  and  as  a  sizing  for  paper  and  cotton  goods. 


DVESTUFFS  55 


DYESTUFFS. 

Commercial  dyes  are  either  the  extracts  from  animal  or  vegetable  matter, 
or  artificially  manufactured  chemical  compounds,  chiefly  from  coal  tar.  They 
are  used  for  dyeing  fibers,  fabrics,  woods,  leather,  and  feathers.  The  great 
diversity  of  tints  obtained  in  dyeing  is  the  result  of  the  combination  of  two  or 
more  substances  with  one  another  or  with  certain  chemical  reagents.  To 
render  colors  permanent,  the  application  of  some  chemical  known  as  a  mor- 
dant is  usually  required;  but  for  some  dyes  no  mordant  is  needed.  Turkey 
red  oil,  alum,  tannin,  argols,  and  compounds  of  soda,  tin,  chromium,  and  iron 
are  the  common  mordants.  Most  vegetable  dyestuffs  are  handled  commer- 
cially in  the  form  of  extracts  made  by  treating  the  raw  material  with  boiling 
water  and  evaporating  the  solution. 

Indigo  is  a  blue  dye  obtained  from  the  juice  of  the  indigo  plants 
INDIGO  (mostly  Indigofera  species)  which  grow  in  tropical  countries. 
India,  Ceylon,  Java,  and  Central  America  are  the  chief  producers. 
The  freshly  cut  plants  are  soaked  in  water,  which  absorbs  the  juice,  becoming 
greenish  in  color;  on  exposure  to  the  air  it  turns  blue,  the  indigo  separates, 
falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank  and  is  dried.  For  dyeing,  indigo  is  usually 
acted  on  by  some  chemical  such  as  soda  or  potash,  which  reduces  it  to  a 
colorless  substance  known  as  "  indigo  white."  This  is  more  easily  soluble 
than  blue  indigo,  and  the  materials  to  be  dyed  are  dipped  in  a  solution  of 
this  substance.  Upon  exposing  the  fabrics  to  air,  the  indigo  white  changes 
again  by  oxidation  to  indigo  blue.  In  printing  calicos,  indigo  white  is 
thickened  with  gum,  dextrine,  or  starch. 

"  Bluing  "  for  laundry  use  is  frequently  indigo. 

The  manufacture  of  artificial  indigo  from  coal  tar  has  made  the  growing 
of  indigo  unprofitable  in  the  West  Indies  and  northern  South  America, 
w  here  large  quantities  were  formerly  produced. 

Madder  is  a  powder  made  from  the  dried  roots  of  a  ])lant 
MADDER      {Rubia  tindorid)  which  is  cultivated  in  southern   Asia   and 
central  Europe.      It  furnishes  a  red  dye  used  for  cotton  goods, 
which  is  of  decreasing  importance  owing  to  the  use  of  coal  tar  colors. 

Logwood  or  campeche  is  the  dark  red  heartwood  of  a  tree 
LOGWOOD     ( IIae>7iatoxylon    campechianum)   which    grows    in    Central 
America  and  the  West  Indies.     Yucatan,  Honduras,  Hayti 
and  Jamaica  are  the  principal  commercial  sources. 

The  wood  comes  to  market  in  logs  from  five  to  ten  inches  in  diameter, 
from  which  the  bark  and  sapwood  have  been  removed.  Logwood  extract 
is  made  in  the  West  Indies  as  well  as  in  America  and  Europe.  This  reddish 
coloring  matter  has  no  affinity  for  fibers  and  requires  the  use  of  a  mordant, 
the  color  obtained  depending  on  the  mordant  used.  It  is  largely  employed 
for  dyeing  black,  but  gives  also  shades  of  blue,  gray,  and  violet. 

Brazil  Wood,  or  Pernambuco  Wood,  comes  from  South 

BRAZIL  WOOD     and  Central  America.      As  in  logwood  the  heartwood  of 

the  tree  {  Caesalpinia^  is  used,  and  the  coloring  matter  is 

extracted  with  boiling  water.      It  gives  shades  of  red  and  violet,  but  does 

not  alone  produce  fast  colors. 


56  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 

Fustic,  mora,  or  yellow  wood,  also  known  as  old  fustic,  is  the 
FUSTIC     wood  of  another  tree  {Chlorophora  tincioria)  and  is  obtained  in 
the  West   Indies  and  tropical   America.      It  is  used  in  d\eing 
woolen  goods,  giving  a  bright  yellow  color. 

Young  fustic,  sappan,  cam,  and  other  woods  yield  dyes. 
Quercitron  is  the  ground  bark  of  the  yellow-bark  oak  tree  {Qtierais 
vclutina)  of  the  United  States.    It  yields  a  yellow  dye  and  is  also  used  in 
tanning. 

Safflower  consists  of  the  dried  flowers  of  an  herb  {Cati/ia- 

SAFFLOWER     miis  tindorius)  which  is  grown  in  many  warm  countries. 

Its  production  is  important  in  India,  Persia  and  Egypt.     It 

is  powdered  and  mixed  with  starch  to  make  toilet  rouge  and  its  extract  gives 

a  red  dye  for  silk. 

Annatto  furnishes  a  harmless  y'ellow  dye  used  chiefly  in  color- 
ANNATTO  ing  butter  and  cheese.  It  is  obtained  from  the  pulp  which 
surrounds  the  seeds  of  a  shrub  {Bixa  orcllana")  culti\ated  in 
South  and  Central  .America  and  the  West  Indies.  The  pulp  is  washed 
from  the  seeds  by  water,  separated  and  dried.  It  comes  on  the  market  as  a 
red  or  orange  colored  liquid  or  paste  and  also  in  cakes.  The  dried  seeds 
with  pulp  adhering  are  also  exported. 

Turmeric,  turnsole,  yellow  berries  or  Persian  berries,  saffron,  henna, 
orchilla,  cudbear,  and  litmus  are  other  vegetable  dyestufis  from  roots, 
seeds,  flowers,  and  lichens. 

See  Cochineal,  Lac,  etc. ,  under  Insect  Products. 

See  also  Coal  Tar  colors,  Prussian  Blue,  Chrome  Yellow,  etc.,  under 
Mineral  Products. 


TANNING  MATERIALS. 

Tans  include  all  substances  which  by  acting  on  the  fiber  of  skins  and 
hides  render  them  proof  against  the  ordinaryprocess  of  decay  and  at  the  same 
time  make  them  pliable.  Most  of  the  vegetable  substances  used  to  convert 
skins  and  hides  into  leather  contain  an  astringent  principle  called  tannin. 
Many  other  substances  are  used  by  tanners  in  preparing  skins  and  leathers 
for  market,  such  as  lime  forunhairing,  acids,  sodium  salts,  alum,  dog's  dung, 
bird's  dung,  bran,  lampblack,  oils,  egg  yolks,  dyes,  varnishes,  etc.  (See 
Tanning. ) 

Manv  substances,  such  as  cutch  and  quercitron,  are  used  both  in  tan- 
ning and  in  dyeing. 

The  following,  or  extracts  made  from  them,  are  among  the  most  im- 
portant tans:  barks — hemlock,  oak,  wattle,  mangrove,  larch,  willow;  -woods — 
oak,  chestnut,  quebracho,  gambir,  c\i\.ch;  fruits — myrobalans,  valonia,  divi- 
divi,  algarobilla  ;  leaves — sumac  ;  galls — oak,  sumac  ;  roots — canaigre, 
palmetto. 


TANNING  MATERIALS  57 

Hemlock  bark  is  ilie  most  important  vegetable  tanning 
TAN  BARKS     material  in  the  United  States. 

Both  the  wood  and  bark  of  the  white  oak  tree  are  used 
in  tanning  and  in  making  extracts.  The  wood  of  the  chestnut  tree,  but  not 
the  bark,  is  also  used. 

Wattle  bark  is  obtained  from  mimosa  trees  (Acacia)  in  Australia.  It 
is  exported  to  England  as  well  as  used  locally.  It  is  increasing  in  importance. 
These  trees  yield  gums  like  gum  arable  and  furnish  useful  woods. 

Mangrove  bark  is  obtained  from  trees  (Rhizophora')  which  grow  on 
swampy  coasts  throughout  the  tropics.  It  is  used  in  many  places  for  tanning, 
but  is  seldom  an  article  of  general  commerce. 

Sumac  leaves  are  obtained  from   different  species  of   sumac 
LEAVES     (Rhus)  in  Mediterranean  countries  and  in  the  southern  United 
States.     In  general,  the  leaves  from  Europe  are  richer  in  tannin. 
Sumac  is  used  for  tanning  fancy  leathers. 

Quebracho  extract  is  obtained  by  boiling  chips  of  a  hard 

EXTRACTS     red    wood    {Schitiopsis)    which    grows    in    Argentina    and 

Paraguay.      The    extract     is     of     increasing    importance. 

The    wood    is    too    hard    and    heavy   to  be   valuable    for    construction    or 

cabinet  work. 

Cutch  or  catechu  is  extracted  from  the  heartwood  of  an  acacia  tree 
common  in  India  and  Ceylon.  It  is  used  for  dyeing  and  in  tanning  heavy 
leathers. 

Gambler  or  terra  japonica  is  a  similar  extract  coming  from  India  and 
obtained  from  the  leaves  of  a  bush  {Uncaria  gambler).  It  is  used  in 
tanning  soft  leather. 

Valonia  consists  of  the  cups  of  acorns  (  Quercus  acgylops)  which  grow 
in  the  Levant.      They  are  rich  in  tannin. 

Palmetto  extract  is  made  from  the  roots  and  creeping  stems  of  the  saw 
palmetto  in  the  southern  L'nited  States.      (See  Palmetto  fiber.) 

Oak  Galls  are  the  product  of  small  insects  allied  to  the 
OAK  GALlS  wasps  and  belonging  to  the  order  Hymcnoptcra.  These 
insects  cause  the  hard  woody  abnormal  growths  upon  the 
smaller  branches  and  leaves  of  oak  trees  The  female  deposits  an  egg  within 
the  bark  and  the  tiny  lar\a,  hatching,  feeds  on  the  soft  wood.  The  insect  is 
supposed  to  secrete  a  stimulating  fluid  which  augments  the  growth  and  causes 
the  gall  to  form.  When  the  larva  attains  its  growth  it  changes  to  the  pupa 
and  then  to  the  perfect  fly  and  cuts  its  way  out  of  the  gall.  The  commercial 
oak  galls  grow  upon  a  tree  (Quercus  luscitajiica  \ar.  i9ifectoria)  common  in 
southwestern  Asia.  (The  insect  cause  is  Cynips  quercus  tincioriae.)  The 
best  galls  come  from  Syria  and  Asia  Minor  and  are  exported  from  Aleppo. 
Galls  contain  gallic  acid,  closely  allied  to  tannic  acid.  They  are  used  for 
tanning,  and  especially  for  making  ink  and  dyes  with  salts  of  iron.  There 
are  other  commercial  and  useful  galls  growing  upon  trees  (Rhus  scmialata  ) 
in  China  and  Japan.  These  are  caused  by  plant  lice  (Schkchlendalia 
^kinensis),  insects  belonging  to  the  sub-order  Homoptcra. 


58  COMMKKCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 

Pyrogallic  acid,  a  chemical  derived  from  galls,  is  an  important  photo- 
graphic de\eloper. 

MISCELLANEOUS  SUBSTANCES. 

Argols  are  deposited  as  a  crystalline  coating  in  casks  of  young 
ARGOLS     wine.      They  are  called  lees,  and  consist  of  crude  potassium 
acid  tartrate  (Q  H.  O^  K).     Argols  are  the  only  commercial 
source  cf  tartaric  acid  and  tartrates.      These  are  useful  as  mordants  in  dye- 
ing,  and    calico    printing,    in    making    baking   powder,    cream    of    tartar, 
Rochelle  salts,  Seidlitz  powders,  and  tartar  emetic. 

Vegetable  Ivory  nuts  are  the  seeds  of  several  species 

VEGETABLE  IVORY     of    palm  trees.      The  kind   most   commonly  used 

i^Phytelephas  macrocarpa)  come  from  Ecuador  and 

Panama.      When  fresh,  they  are  soft,  juicy,  and  edible;  but  on  drying  they 

become  hard.      On  soaking  in  water  they  become  soft  enough  to  be  cut  with 

a  knife.     The}-  are  used  for  making  buttons,  chessmen,  and  small  ornaments. 

Lycopodium  powder  consists  of  the  minute  spores  of  certain  species 

of  club  mosses  common  in  Europe.      It  is  used  in  making  fireworks  and  by 

pharmacists. 

Soap  bark  and  soap  berries  are  collected  in  various  countries.  The 
common  soap  bark  sold  at  drug  stores  comes  from  Chili. 

Teasels  are  the  dried  heads  of  a  common  plant  and  are  grown  in 
Europe  for  use  in  finishing  woolen  fabrics. 

Pyrethrum,  a  substance  used  in  insect  powders,  consists  of  the  pow- 
dered flowers  of  plants  allied  to  the  chrysanthemum.  It  is  obtained 
chiefly  from  Dalmatia,  Persia  and  southeastern  Europe. 

There  are  many  other  vegetable  materials  in  common  use,  some  of 
which  enter  into  general  commerce. 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS. 

Animal  Products  may  be  conveniently  classified  as  follows: 

Live  animals  for  beasts  of  burden,  for  slaughtering,  for  breeding,  etc. 

Articles  of  Animal  Origin  used  for  Food  : — Meats,  fresh,  dried, 
salted,  canned,  or  otherwise  preserved,  from  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  fowls, 
game,  etc. ;  meat  extracts,  fish,  oysters,  crabs,  lobsters,  eggs,  milk,  butter, 
cheese,  lard,  oleomargarine,  gelatine,  etc. 

Animal   Fibers  : — Hair,  wool,  fur,  bristles,  silk. 

Hides  and  Skins  : — Furs,  raw  hides,  leathers,  feathers. 

Horns,  Hoofs,  etc.,  including  ivory,  tortoise  shell,  glue. 

Animal   Oils: — Butter,  lard,  cod  li\er  oil,  fish  oil,  etc. 

Pearl  and   Mother  of  Pearl,  Sponges,  Corals. 

Other  Products,  including  perfumes,  etc..  Musk,  civet. 

Insect  Products  (other  than  silk),  including  honey,  wax,  cochineal, 
lac,  galls. 

In  the  following  pages  these  are  grouped  according  to  the  animals 
which  prixluce  them. 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS  59 


HORSES. 

Horses  are  raised  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world,  chiefly  as  beasts  of 
burden.  In  the  United  States  the  greatest  number  of  horses  are  raised  in 
the  south  and  west;  some  are  e.xported  for  breeding,  racing  and  draft  pur- 
poses to  England,  Canada  and  Germany.  Russia  supplies  nearly  half  the 
horses  used  in  Europe. 

Horse  flesh  is  eaten  in  France,  Germany  and  other  countries. 

Horse  hide  is  used  for  making  "  cordo\an  "  leather  for  shoes,  saddles 
and  razor  strops.  The  part  of  the  hide  most  used  for  leather  is  an  o^•al  piece 
about  three  feet  long  from  the  rumj).  This  leather  is  e.xceptionally  strong 
and  more  nearly  waterproof  than  that  from  any  other  land  animal.  It  is 
finished  in  tan,  black  and  other  colors. 

Horse  hair  from  manes  and  tails  comes  on  the  market  from  Russia, 
China,  Argentina.  Germany,  and  other  countries.  It  is  used  for  weaving 
in  hair  cloth,  for  making  brushes,  and  for  bows  for  musical  instruments. 
When  curled  it  is  used  for  stuffing  mattresses  and  furniture. 

Fermented  mare"s  milk,  "  koumiss,"  is  imported  from  western  Asia  for 
medicinal  purposes.   A  preparation  of  cow's  milk  is  sold  underthesamename. 

Mules  and  asses  are  more  used  than  horses  in  many  places. 

CATTLE. 

Cattle  are  raised  in  all  parts  of  the  world  and  are  important  every- 
where in  local  commerce.  The  United  States,  Russia,  India,  Argentina, 
Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  France  and  Australia  are  the  greatest  cattle 
raising  countries.  The  United  States,  Argentina  and  Australia  are  the 
greatest  exporters. 

Live  cattle  are  shipped  from  one  place  to  another  chiefly  to  supjjly 
fresh  meat  to  distant  points.  Breeds  of  cattle,  as  of  other  animals,  differ 
in  various  countries.  Certain  breeds,  such  as  the  Jersey  and  Aldernev,  are 
most  valuable  for  milk ;  others  are  better  beef  cattle.  The  humped  cattle  of 
India  thrive  well  in  tropical  countries.  The  Carabao  or  water  buffalo  is  the 
principal  draft  animal  and  beast  of  burden  in  many  Pacific  Islands.  In 
India  and  China,  cattle  are  chiefly  valuable  as  draft  animals.  In  many 
places,  the  hides  and  tallow  are  the  main  products  of  the  cattle  industry. 

Milk,  butter,  cheese,  buttermilk  and  condensed  milk  are  valuable  com- 
mercially in  nearly  all  countries. 

Sugar  of  milk  is  used  medicinally  and  in  silvering  mirrors. 

Slaughtering  and  meat  packing  are  important  industries  in  the 
BEEF  United  States,  Europe,  Argentina  and  Australia.  Chicago,  Kan- 
sas City,  St.  Louis  and  Omaha  are  the  most  important  centers  in 
this  country.  The  export  of  live  cattle  is  less  important  than  it  was  a  few 
years  ago,  because  so  much  meat  is  now  shipped  in  refrigerator  cars  and  in  the 
cold  storage  compartments  of  steamships.  In  addition  to  the  fresh  meats 
shipped,  large  amounts  are  dried,  salted,  corned,  smoked,  canned,  or  other- 
wise preserved,  or  made  into  soups  and  extracts.  The  by-products  of 
slaughtering  are  ver\'  numerous  and  it  may  be  said  that  in  the  great  slaughter 
houses  no  part  of  the  animal  is  wasted. 


6o  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 


Cow  Hair.  The  long  hair  from  the  tails  is  used  like  horse  hair.  The 
short  hair  which  covers  the  rest  of  the  body  is  used  for  mixinjj  in  plaster, 
and  making  roofing  felt. 

Horns  and  hoofs  of  cattle  are  utilized  in  making  combs,  buttons,  um- 
brella, knife  and  other  handles  and  fancy  articles,  also  in  the  chemical  manu- 
facture of  cyanide  of  potash. 

Bones  are  used  in  making  buttons,  combs,  handles  for  tooth  brushes 
and  other  articles,  often  as  a  substitute  for  ivory.  The  waste  from  bone 
manufacture  is  burnt,  forming  bone  charcoal  or  bone  black,  which  is 
used  in  filters  for  oil  and  sugar,  and  in  making  blacking.  The  grease 
extracted  from  bones  is  used  in  soap  and  candle  making.  Some  ammonia 
is  recovered  in  burning  bones. 

Tallow  is  made  from  the  fat  or  suet  of  cattle  or  sheep  by  melting  and 
straining  it,  a  process  which  is  known  as  "rendering."  It  is  used  for  soap 
and  candle  making,  for  lubricating,  and  in  dressing  skins  and  leathers.  The 
purified  oils  and  fats  are  used  in  fabricating  butter  substitutes,  such  as 
oleomargarine  and  butterine.  These,  like  real  butter,  are  usually  colored 
with  annatto. 

Neat's  Foot  Oil  is  made  by  boiling  the  feet  of  cattle  and  skimming  off 
the  oil  as  it  comes  to  the  surface.      It  is  a  valuable  lubricant. 

Gelatine  is  made  from  the  feet  of  cattle  and  from  hide  cuttings  and 
sinews.  Calf's  foot  jelly  is  made  by  boiling  the  feet.  Hides  are  treated  with 
lye  and  then  boiled  in  water,  dissoh'ing  the  gelatine,  which  sets  on  cooling 
and  is  cut  into  sheets  to  dry. 

Glue  is  similar  to  gelatine  in  nature,  but  is  usually  made  from  bones  by 
softening  them  with  hydrochloric  acid  and  then  steaming  them.  The  glue 
and  bone  fat  are  drawn  off  from  time  to  time  and  separated  in  settling  tanks. 
Liquid  glues  are  made  by  dissolving  ordinary  glue  in  weak  acids. 

Size  is  used  in  preparing  paper  and  fabrics  and  is  similar  to  glue  and 
gelatine. 

Dried  Blood  is  used  in  purifying  sugar,  clarifying  wines,  in  dyeing, 
and  in  fertilizers.  The  albumen  of  blood  is  employed  in  calico  printing  and 
as  a  mordant  in  dyeing. 

The  Intestines  of  cattle  supply  goldbeater's  skin,  sausage  skins,  etc. 
Bladders  cleaned  and  prepared,  on  account  of  their  thinness  and  strength, 
are  used  by  druggists  and  oil  dealers  as  coverings  for  vessels. 

Pepsin,  rennet,  and  other  substances  are  prepared  from  the  lining  of 
the  stomach  and  certain  other  parts. 

Fertilizers  are  made  from  all  the  waste  and  refuse  parts  of  the  animal, 
and  from  the  cuttings  and  waste  from  bones,  horns  and  hides. 

Hides  are  known  to  the  tanner  according  to  the  age  of  the  animal,  as 
' '  hides ' '  from  full  grown  cattle,  ' '  kips ' '  from  two  year  old  animals  and 
"  calf  skins." 

Rawhide  is  simply  the  dried  and  cleaned  skin  from  whicli  the  hair  has 
been  removed,  softened  by  oils.  It  is  used  for  ropes  and  lariats,  for  belts 
and  belt  lacings,  whips,  and  faces  for  mallets. 


D 

O         Ul 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS  6l 


Vellum  is  made  from  calf  skin  i)y  imhairing  with  lime  and  then  nibbing 
it  down  with  chalk  and  pnmice. 

TANNING. 

When  hides  are  received  at  the  factory,  they  are  either  fresh  from  the 
animal  (called  "green"  hides)  or  dried.  The  dried  hides  have  usually 
been  salted  to  preserve  them  from  decay  and  must  be  soaked  in  water  to 
soften  them  and  dissolve  the  salt.  After  soaking,  the  hides  are  "  fleshed  " 
by  being  scraped  with  a  knife  and  thoroughly  scrubbed  to  remove  all  blood, 
fat  and  dirt.  The  hair  is  then  softened  either  by  soaking  the  hides  in  lime 
water  or  by  a  process  of  "sweating"  which  is  equivalent  to  a  very  slight 
deca)'.  In  either  case  the  hair  is  removed,  generally  by  a  machine,  and  the 
hides  are  then  ready  to  be  taniied. 

In  tanning  sole-leather,  the  hide  is  soaked  for  several 
SOLE  LEATHER  days  in  vats,  first  in  a  weak  solution  and  then  in  a 
stronger  liquor,  made  by  steeping  oak  or  hemlock 
bark  in  water  or  by  dissolving  prepared  tanning  extracts.  This  causes  a 
chemical  change  in  the  fiber  of  the  hide,  rendering  it  proof  against  the 
ordinary  process  of  decay  to  which  the  untanned  skin  is  liable,  and  making 
it  pliable  instead  of  hard  and  stiff,  as  hides  are  when  simply  dried  without 
tanning.  The  tan-liquor  is  made  stronger  from  time  to  time,  and  the 
hides  are  frequently  ' '  handled  ' '  or  moved  about,  so  that  they  will  come 
in  contact  with  fresh  liquor.  After  five  or  si.x  months,  or  sometimes  after  a 
year  or  more,  the  hide  has  absorbed  all  of  the  tannin  which  it  will  take  up, 
and  the  tanning  is  complete.  The  hides  are  then  removed  from  the  ' '  pits," 
washed,  oiled,  dried,  dampened  and  rolled  by  brass  rollers,  which  give  the 
leather  a  gloss  on  the  hair  side. 

Other  grades  of   leather  are  tanned  and  linished   liy 

UPPER  AND  variations  on  the  above    process.      Thick   hides   cU-e 

FANCY  LEATHER  often  split  thin  by  machinery  and  the  parts  retanned 
and  finished  separately.  The  parts  from  the  hair 
side  are  most  valuable  and  are  called  "grain"  leather,  and  the  inner 
parts  or  "  flesh  splits"  are  made  into  a  variety  of  leathers  by  wa.xing,  oiling 
and  polishing.  After  tanning,  nearly  all  leather  must  be  finished  by  being 
' '  stuffecf ' '  with  tallow,  stearine,  or  oils  such  as  olive,  castor,  cod  liver,  whale 
or  sperm,  and  polished  by  rubbing  with  brushes  and  rollers.  Patent  and 
enamelled  leathers  are  coated  with  black  \arnish. 

Leathers  for  different  purposes  are  made  from  the  hides  of  different 
animals,  and  are  tanned  by  different  substances  and  by  a  great  variety  of 
processes.  Goat  skins  are  tanned  in  large  numbers  for  soft  shoe  leather 
(called  "glazed  kid"  and  other  names)  by  immersing  them,  after  prelim- 
inary unhairing,  cleaning  and  softening  (or  bating),  in  a  solution  of  chromic 
acid,  bichromate  of  potash  or  alum,  and  then  in  a  bath  of  sodium  hyposul- 
phite. Many  glove  leathers  are  chrome  tanned.  Chamois  leather  and 
wash  leathers  are  made  of  sheep  skin  by  thoroughly  imjjregnating  it  with 
fish  oil.  The  e.xcess  of  oil  used  is  sejueezed  out,  and  under  the  name  of 
"  degras  "  is  used  in  currving  other  leathers. 


62 


COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS  63 


The  skins  of  nearly  all  animals  are  utilized  to  a  greater  or  less  extent 
when  tanned  or  dressed.  Calf  skin  makes  a  soft  leather  for  boots  and  shoes. 
Lamb  skin,  dog  skin,  deer  skin,  buck  skin,  doe  skin  and  rat  skin  are  used 
for  gloves.  Kangaroo,  alligator,  whale,  porpoise,  seal,  walrus,  snake, 
beaver  tail,  and  hundreds  of  other  skins  are  used  in  making  fancy  leathers, 
for  hand  bags,  purses,  belts  and  miscellaneous  articles. 

There  are  quite  a  number  of    materials  sold  as  imitation 

IMITATION     leather.      Most  of  them  are  made  of  strong  cloth,  covered 

LEATHER      with  drying  oil  like  linseed,  mi.xed  with  various  gums   or 

other  solid  substances.      The  exact  composition  is  usually 

kept  secret  by  the  manufacturers.      Imitation  leathers  are  used  for  almost  all 

purposes  for  which  leather  is  used,  except  for  shoes  and  gloves. 


SWINE. 

The  United  States  is  the  greatest  hog  raising  country.  Large  numbers 
are  raised  in  Germany,  Austria  and  Russia,  as  well  as  in  nearly  all  other 
parts  of  the  world.  Live  hogs  are  seldom  exported.  Pork  is  a  very  im- 
portant food  and  is  eaten  almost  everywhere  e.xcept  by  Jews  and  Mohamme- 
dans. Chicago,  Kansas  City  and  Omaha  are  the  chief  centers  of  pork 
packing.  The  meat  is  sold  fresh  (refrigerated),  salted,  pickled,  smoked, 
and  in  the  form  of  ham,  bacon  and  sausage. 

Lard  is  one  of  the  main  products.      It  is  the  rendered  fat  of  the 

LARD     hog.      Its  chief    use  is  as  a  food  stuf?.      Lard  oil  is  obtained  by 

placing  lard  in  woolen  bags  and  submitting  it  to  heavy  pressure. 

It  is  used  for  lubricating  and  lighting  and  as  an  adulterant  for  other  oils. 

Stearine  for  candle  making  remains  after  the  oil  is  pressed  from  lard. 

All  parts  of  the  hog  are  utilized.  The  hair  is  sold  for  mixing  in  mortar, 
the  intestines  when  cleaned  are  used  for  sausage  casings,  the  bones  are 
carbonized  and  sold  to  sugar  refiners,  or  with  all  other  refuse  are  made 
into  fertilizer. 

Pigskins  are  made  into  leather  for  saddles  and  satchels. 

Bristles  are  obtained  commercially,  chiefly  from  Russia  and 

BRISTLES     China.      In  these  countries  the  pig  is  much  like  its  ancestor 

the  wild  boar  and  has  not  been  improved  by  breeding.     The 

bristles  of  these  animals  are  much  more  valuable  than  those  of  the  improved 

breeds  raised  in  America  and  are  used  for  making  brushes  for  many  purposes. 


SHEEP. 

Sheep  are  raised  throughout  the  temperate  parts  of  the  globe.  Australia, 
Argentina,  Uruguay,  Russia  and  the  United  States  are  the  leading  sheep 
raising  countries.  The  different  breeds  have  developed  from  one  original 
stock  and  are  due  to  differences  in  climate  and  food  and  to  selection 
in  breeding.  Some  breeds,  like  the  Southdown,  are  most  valuable  for 
mutton,  and  some,  like  the  Merino,  on  account  of  the  fine  quality  of  their 
wool,  and  in  these  respects  each  breed  differs  somewhat  from  the  others. 


64  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 

Merino  sheep  originally  dcvelopeil  in  Spain  and  for  several  centuries  were 
raised  nowhere  else.  Saxony  merinos,  including  Ranibouillet,  Negretti  and 
Electoral,  are  the  im[)ortant  varieties.  Various  breeds  of  sheep  have  de- 
veloped in  Great  Britain,  ]irominent  among  which  are  the  Southdown,  Lin- 
coln, Dorset,  Highland,  Cotswold,  and  Leicester.  The  fat-tailed  sheep  are 
peculiar  to  certain  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa. 

Live  Sheep  are  exported  from  .Argentina,  United  States,  Canada, 
Australia  and  New  Zealand. 

Mutton  is  not  so  large  an  item  as  either  beef  or  pork  in  the 

MUTTON     world's  commerce,  although    Argentina,  Australia  and  New 

Zealand    ship  many  frozen  carcasses  of  sheep  and  lambs  to 

England.      The   flesh   of    sheep    is  seldom  eaten  in    Spain   e.xcept  by  the 

very  poor. 

Sheep's  milk  is  used  in  France  to  make  genuine  Roquefort  cheese. 
Sheep's  bones  are  not  so  large,  and  therefore  less  useful,  than  those  of  cattle. 
Tallow  is  rendered  from  the  fat  of  sheep  as  well  as  from  that  of  cattle. 

Cat  Gut  used  for  strings  for  musical  instruments,  tennis  racquets,  and 
other  purposes  is  nearly  all  prepared  from  the  intestines  of  sheep. 

Sheep  skins  are  dressed  for  use  as  rugs  by  treating  the 
SHEEP  SKINS  flesh  side  with  powdered  salt  and  alum.  They  are  also 
employed  in  some  parts  of  the  world  for  clothing. 
Fashionable  furs  are  made  of  the  skins  of  unborn  and  very  young  lambs 
and  according  to  the  breed  of  the  animal  and  the  part  of  the  world  from 
which  they  come,  they  are  known  as  Persian  lamb,  broadtail,  Spanish  As- 
trakhan, Thibet,  etc. 

The  wool  is  shaved  off  from  the  skins  of  sheep  which  have  been 
slaughtered,  and  the  skins  themselves,  called  "  roans,"  are  used  for  making 
leather.  (See  Tanning.  )  They  are  often  split  so  as  to  get  leather  of  even 
thickness  and  the  two  parts  tanned  separately.  The  pieces  from  the  hair  or 
"grain"  side  are  called  "skivers,"  and  those  from  the  flesh  side,  which 
are  of  poorer  quality,  are  called  "  fleshers." 

Moroccos  and  colored  leathers  are  tanned  and  finished  by  different 
processes  and  are  used  for  many  purposes,  such  as  linings  in  boots  and  shoes, 
bookbinding,  handbags,  pocket-books,  hat  bands,  etc. 

Chamois  leather  is  made  by  dressing  sheep  skins  with  fish  oil.  Gloves 
are  made  of  lambskins  dressed  with  oil  to  imitate  kid,  deerskin  and  dog 
skin.  Parchment  is  made  of  sheep  skin  (sometimes  of  goat  skin)  by  scrap- 
ing and  rubbing  down  with  chalk  and  pumice. 

Wool  is  the  most  important  animal  fiber  and  the  most  valuable 
WOOL  product  of  the  sheep.  It  differs  from  hair  in  being  generally 
finer  and  in  having  a  surface  which  under  the  microscope  is  seen 
to  be  covered  with  a  great  number  of  minute  o\erlapping  scales.  The  sur- 
face of  hair  sometimes  shows  scales,  but  they  are  few  in  number  and  much 
less  prominent  than  on  wool.  These  scales  with  their  projecting  edges,  gi\'e 
to  wool  its  felting  quality,  by  causing  tlir  fibers  to  adhere  to  each  other. 
Both  hair  and  fur  are  produced  by  many  animals,  the  fur  being  shorter  and 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS  65 


finer  and  similar  to  wool.  Whik'  hairs  such  as  those  from  the  horse 
and  cow  are  straig;ht,  the  wool  of  the  Merino  sheep  is  beautifully  wavy  and 
crimped.  In  the  finest  wools  there  are  sometimes  as  many  as  thirty  crimps 
to  the  inch.  Coarser  wools  such  as  the  Leicester  and  Lincoln  have  only  a 
few  crimps  in  an  inch.  There  are  great  differences  in  the  length  of  fiber  or 
staple  of  wools  from  various  breeds  of  sheep,  and  on  this  basis  they  are 
divided  commercially  into  clothing,  combing  and  carpet  wools.  The  shortest 
and  finest  are  the  pure  bred  merinos  and  are  called  "clothing"  wools. 
These  are  used  in  making  the  very  finest  woolen  yarns  and  fabrics.  Cross 
breeds  of  the  Merino  and  Lincoln  sheep  yield  wools  which  are  stronger  and 
longer  than  the  pure  Merino  and  not  so  coarse  as  the  pure  Lincoln.  These 
wools  are  especially  used  in  fine  grade  goods,  such  as  worsteds  or  dress 
goods.  Clothing  wools  come  from  Germany,  Argentina,  Australia,  South 
Africa,  Russia  and  the  United  States.  The  longest  and  coarsest  of  the 
good  wools  are  such  as  those  of  the  Lincoln  and  Leicester  breeds  and  are 
called  ' '  combing ' '  wools.  These  are  used  in  making  worsted  yarns  and 
fabrics,  for  carpets  and  blankets.  England,  Scotland,  France,  Australia, 
and  the  United  States  supply  most  of  these  wools.  Lamb's  wool  is  used 
with  certain  furs  in  hat  making. 

In  Russia,  Asia  Minor,  China  and  Spain  there  are  large  numbers  of 
sheep  which  have  undergone  no  impro\ement  by  mixture  with  the  Lincoln 
or  Merino  breeds.  These  are  called  native  sheep,  and  they  produce  ' '  nati^•e 
or  "carpet"  wools.  The  wool  of  sheep  as  it  grows,  is  saturated  with  a 
natural  grease  called  wool  fat,  yolk  or  suint.  This  causes  the  wool  to  shed 
water  and  prevents  it  from  tangling  or  felting  on  the  sheep's  back.  Where 
it  is  abundant  in  the  wool  it  also  causes  dirt  to  stick,  and  for  this  reason  many 
sheep  are  washed  before  shearing.  The  wool  as  it  is  clipped  does  not  fall 
apart  like  bunches  of  hair,  but  holds  together  like  a  skin,  and  is  rolled  up 
and  tied  in  a  bundle,  each  fleece  by  itself.  When  the  fleeces  are  opened  they 
are  spread  out  and  sorted  into  several  grades,  according  to  the  length  and 
fineness  of  the  fiber,  because  the  wool  on  some  parts  of  the  sheep's  body  is 
of  better  quality  than  on  other  parts.  The  wools  from  the  poorer  breeds  of 
sheep  are  not  sorted  into  as  many  grades  as  the  finer  wools,  and  the  fleeces 
of  the  poorest  kinds  do  not  hold  together  in  the  form  of  a  skin. 

After  sorting  or  "stapling,"  the  wool  is  "scoured"  by  washing  with 
soap  and  water  to  remove  the  grease,  potash  and  dirt.  In  scouring  some 
very  greasy  dirty  wools  loose  as  much  as  80  per  cent,  of  their  weight,  the 
grease  itself  not  infrequently  being  o\er  60  per  cent.  The  wool  fat  is  by 
some  processes  saved  and  sold  as  lanoline,  or  converted  into  soap.  In  the 
ne.xt  process,  "carbonizing,"  the  scoured  wool  is  treated  with  acid,  which 
destroys  all  burrs  or  other  vegetable  matters  which  are  tangled  in  the  fleece. 

The  ne.xt  step  is  to  convert  the  wool  into  yarn.  For  this  purpose  it 
must  be  "carded,"  if  it  is  to  be  made  into  a  woolen  yani,  or  it  must  be 
"  combed,"  if  it  is  to  be  made  into  a  worsted  yarn.  In  carding  the  wool  is 
passed  over  a  cvlinder  set  with  innumerable  fine  wire  teeth  which  serve  to 
tangle  the  fibers  in  all  directions,  after  which  it  is  loosely  spun  into  woolen 


66  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 

yarn  which,  in  turn,  is  woven  into  woolen  goods.  The  wool  used  for  woolen 
yarns  is  usually  short  staple ;  the  yarns  are  loosely  twisted  and  largely  depend 
for  their  coherence  upon  the  felting  property  of  the  wool.  For  worsted 
yarns  the  wool  is  combed,  in  order  to  lay  the  separate  fibers  parallel  to  each 
other,  after  which  it  is  spun  into  yarn,  usually  with  a  tighter  twist  than  that 
given  to  woolen  goods.  In  felt,  the  wool  or  fur  is  neither  spun  nor  woven, 
but  is  simply  tangled  and  pressed,  or  kneaded  or  pounded.  The  scales  with 
which  wool  and  fur  are  beset  greatly  facilitate  the  felting  process,  and  the 
more  numerous  the  scales,  the  more  readily  will  the  wool  or  fur  felt.  Materials 
which,  like  vegetable  fibers  and  silk,  lack  these  scales,  will  not  felt  at  all. 

In  all  of  the  processes  of  making  wool  into  yarn  and  doth  there  are  por- 
tions consisting  of  short,  broken  or  tangled  fibers  which  do  not  pass  through 
the  machines.  These  are  termed  ' '  waste. ' '  The  best  grades  of  waste  are 
mixed  with  good  wool  in  yarns,  or  else  spun  with  "shoddy."  Shoddy  is 
made  by  tearing  up  old  woolen  goods,  rags  or  cloth  cuttings  in  a  machine 
until  the  fabric  and  the  yarn  of  which  it  was  made  are  reduced  to  a  mass  of 
loose  fibers.  It  is  mi.xed  with  wool  in  the  manufacture  of  cheap  yarns 
and  fabrics. 

There  are  many  fabrics  on  the  market  made  of  wool,  some  of  the  most 
important  of  which  are  woolen,  worsted,  felt,  flannel,  serge,  broadcloth, 
cheviot,  cassimere,  carpets,  tapestry,  blankets,  hosiery,  underwear,  shawls, 
velvets  and  plushes.  Woolen  fabrics  are  often  adulterated  with  cotton,  and 
there  are  many  mi.xed  goods  woven  with  warp  threads  of  cotton  or  silk  and 
weft  of  wool,  or  \'ice  versa.  Carpets  frequently  have  a  warp  or  a  backing 
made  of  jute,  hemp,  linen  or  cotton. 


GOATS. 

Goats  are  raised  in  large  numbers  throughout  western  Asia,  particularly 
in  Asia  Minor.  There  are  many  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  southern 
Europe  and  northern  Africa  and  in  Mexico  and  Texas.  In  some  countries 
they  are  used  as  beasts  of  burden. 

There  are  several  distinct  varieties  of  goats  (Caprus  species)  such  as 
the  common  goat,  the  Angora  and  the  Cashmere,  and  among  these  there  are 
numerous  breeds. 

Goat's  flesh  is  eaten  in  many  places,  that  of  the  kid  being  most  highly 
esteemed,  but  in  civilized  countries  it  is  not  a  popular  article  of  diet.  The 
meat  of  the  Angora  goat  is  said  to  be  equal  to  mutton.  The  tallow  is  used 
for  making  candles  and  the  largest  horns  like  those  of  deer. 

Goat's  milk  is  in  common  use  among  the  Arabs  and  in  Italy,  Spain  and 
other  Mediterranean  countries,  as  well  as  in  Cuba.  It  is  customary  where 
this  beverage  is  used,  to  drive  a  flock  of  goats  about  the  streets  of  a  city  and 
milk  the  animal  at  a  customer's  door. 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS  67 

Goat  skins  are  used  by  Moors  and  Arabs  for  making  bottles 
GOAT  SKINS     to  hold  water  and  wine  and  for  making  morocco  leather. 

Some  skins,  particularly  such  as  the  Angora,  are  used  for 
rugs  and  in  parts  of  the  world  for  clothing.  In  the  United  States  and  Europe 
very  large  numbers  of  goat  skins  are  imported  for  leather  making.  (See 
Tanning. ) 

Glazed  kid  and  other  soft  leathers  for  shoes  are  made  of  goat  skins 
tanned  with  chrome.  Morocco  and  fancy  leathers  are  made  for  bookbinding, 
shoes,  and  miscellaneous  articles  by  tanning  with  sumac  or  other  vegetable 
tans.      Much  morocco  is  made  also  of  sheep  skin. 

The  original  cordovan  and  morocco  leathers  were  made  in  Spain  and 
northern  Africa  of  goat  skins. 

Kid  skins  are  made  into  glove  leather  by  "  tawing,"  a  process  in  which, 
after  thorough  softening,  the  damp  skins  are  tumbled  about  in  a  drum  con- 
taining alum  and  salt,  and  then  after  drying  are  tumbled  again  in  another 
drum  with  a  mixture  of  oil,  flour  and  egg  yolk.  Glove  leathers  are  also 
made  of  sheep,  lamb,  deer,  rat  and  other  skins. 

Goat  hair,  as  it  is  known  commercially,  comes  from  the 
GOAT  HAIR     common  goat.       It   is    obtained  in   Turkey,    Russia,   Asia 

Minor  and  India.  It  is  usually  from  three  to  four  and  a 
half  inches  long  and  white,  red  or  black  in  color.  It  is  used  in  making 
coarse  blankets  and  carpets. 

Angora  or  Mohair  comes  from  the  Angora  goat  and  is  produced  in 

South  Africa,  Turkey  and  the  United  States.      It  has  a  very  glossy  fiber  often 

ten  inches  in  length  and  is  used  in  making  dress  goods,  braids  and  plushes. 

Cashmere  wool  is  produced  in  Thibet  and  the  high- 

CASHMERE  WOOL     lands  of  central  Asia  by  the  Cashmere  goat.      This 

animal  has  a  fine  soft  wool  and  longer  coarser  hair. 

The  wool  is  used  in  making  true  Cashmere  shawls,  which  are  very  highly 

valued  on  account  of  their  beauty  and  durability.      Most  goods  commonly 

sold  as  cashmere  are  made  of  sheep's  wool. 

CAMELS. 

The  camel  produces  a  fine  wool  which  is  especially  suited 
CAMEL  HAIR     for  making  hosiery,   underwear  and  shawls.      It   is  also 
employed  in  making  fine  brushes.      At  certain  seasons  of 
the  year  the  hair  of  the  camel  loosens  and  is  plucked  out  by  hand. 

In  China,  Arabia  and  other  parts  of  Asia,  Russia,  Turkey  and  many 
parts  of  Africa  the  camel  is  a  common  beast  of  burden.  Its  flesh  is  frequently 
eaten,  its  skin  tanned,  and  its  milk  used  as  a  beverage  or  made  into  cheese. 

There  are  two  important  varieties,  the  two-humped  or  Bactrian  camel 
and  the  one-humped  camel  or  dromedary. 


68  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 

Alpaca  wool  is  a  valuable  fiber  obtained  in  Peru  from 
ALPACA  WOOL     the  alpaca,  an  animal  of  the  camel  tribe.      This  wool  is 
fine,  stronj^  and  particularly  lontr.      It  is  used  for  making- 
dress  goods.      The  llama  and  vicuiia  are  similar  animals,  the  skins  and  hair 
of  which  are  used  for  robes  in  Peru.      \'icuna  robes  are  sometimes  exported. 
Most  of  the  so-called  xicufia  fabrics  on  the  American  market  are  made  of 
sheep's  wool.      Llamas  are  used  in  Peru  as  beasts  of  burden. 
MISCELLANEOUS  ANIMALS. 
Deer  and  antelope  of  many  species  furnish  food  and  clothing  in 
DEER     some  districts.      The  reindeer  is  the  chief  domestic  animal  in  the 
coldest  parts  of  northern  Europe  and  Asia.      Deer  horns  and  stag 
horns  are  used  for  ornaments  and  in  the  manufacture  of  knife  handles  and 
various  fancy  articles,  and  are  obtained  in  India,  Ceylon,  Siam,  China,  Rus- 
sia, Germany,  Africa,  Canada  and  Central  America.      Deer  skins  are  used 
for  rugs  and  in  leather  making,  chiefly  for  buck  skin  and  doe  skin. 

Ivory  is  obtained  chiefly  from  the  tusks  of  the  elephant,  in  India 
IVORY  and  in  Africa.  It  is  used  for  fancy  carvings,  billiard  balls,  knife 
handles,  piano  keys,  combs  and  vaccine  points.  The  Indian 
elephant  displays  much  intelligence  and  is  trained  as  a  beast  of  burden. 
Elephant's  hide  has  been  tanned,  but  this  leather  is  not  often  used.  Small 
amounts  of  i\'ory  come  from  the  tusks  of  mammoths  dug  up  in  .Siberia  where 
they  lived  in  past  ages,  from  hippopotamus  teeth,  narwhal  horns,  and  the 
teeth  of  the  walrus.      Walrus  skin  is  tanned  to  make  a  fancy  leather. 

Most  of  the  valuable  furs  of  commerce  come  from  the  cold  countries 
FURS  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  with  the  e.xception  of  the  skins  of 
monkeys  and  of  the  cat  family.  London  and  Leipzig  are  the  great 
fur  markets.  In  addition  to  the  furs  used  in  Europe  and  America  for  mats, 
robes,  muffs  and  other  clothing,  enormous  numbers  are  sold  in  the  colder 
parts  of  Asiatic  Russia  and  China.  Here  there  is  a  market  not  only  for 
costly  furs  but  also  for  large  numbers  of  cheap  fiu's  which  in  America  are  not 
stylish.  Sea  otter  is  probably  the  most  expensive  fur  in  the  world,  a  single 
skin  being  sometimes  worth  $1,200.  Russian  sable  and  silver  fox,  while 
costly,  are  more  common. 

Wild  animals  of  the  cat  family  furnish  many  skins  for  rugs  and  orna- 
mental purposes.  Prominent  among  these  are  the  tiger,  lion,  leopard, 
panther,  lynx  and  wild  cat.  Skins  of  the  domestic  cat,  when  dressed  and 
dyed,  are  commonly  worn  as  furs  under  \arious  names. 

Skins  of  dogs  are  also  used  in  fur  rugs  and  robes,  and  leather  from  the 
hide  is  made  into  gloves.  The  Eskimo  dog  is  most  important  as  a  draught 
animal,  and  dogs  are  used  similarly  in  Belgium  and  other  parts  of  Europe. 
Wolf  skins  are  used  principally  for  knapsacks.  Fo.k  skins  are  among  the 
most  popular  furs,  the  common  red  fox  furnishing  most  of  the  skins  used. 
The  skin  of  the  silver  gray  fo.x  is  very  valuable,  being  worth  up  to  $200. 

Skins  of  bears,  raccoons,  wolverines,  skunks,  martens,  weasels,  ermines, 
minks,  sables,  monkeys,  moles,  chinchillas,  otters,  beavers,  nutrias,  musk 
rats,  squirrels,  and  opossums  are  used  as  furs  for  rugs,  robes  or  clothing. 


ANIMAL  PROIH'CTS 


69 


Handsome  furs  are  also  obtained  from  sheep,  lambs  and  goats. 

Many  of  these  furs  are  used  in  their  natural  condition,  simply  cleaned 
and  dressed,  so  that  the  skins  are  soft  and  flexible.  A  great  many  of  them, 
such  as  otter,  beaver  and  nutria,  have  long,  coarse  overhairs,  which  must  be 
plucked  out  in  order  to  uncover  the  more  beautiful  fur.  Many  cheap  furs 
are  dyed  and  otherwise  prepared  to  imitate  more  costly  varieties. 

Seal  skin  is  a  fur,  which  as  it  is  sold,  bears  little  resemlilance  to  the 
SEALS      pelt  in  its  natural  state.      The  remo\al  of  the  long,  coarse  o\er- 

hairs  leaves  a  grayish  or  light  brown  fur,  which  is  dj-ed  a  desir- 
able color,  care  being  taken  to  dye  the  tip  of  the  fur  darker  than  the  base. 
Seal  skins  come  on  the  market  from  Pribilof  and  other  islands  of  Bering  Sea 
and  adjacent  parts  of  the  north  Pacific  Ocean,  and  a  few  from  Lobos  Island 
off  the  coast  of  Uruguay  and  from  the  South  Shetland  Islands.  Imitations 
of  seal  skin  called  "electric  seal"  are  made  from  the  skins  of  the  cony  or 
European  rabbit,  and  cheaper  imitations  still,  are  simply  plushes. 

In  addition  to  the  fur  seal,  there  are  several  other  kinds  of  seals,  such 
as  the  hair  seal  and  the  harp  seal.  The  skins  of  these  and  the  skins  of  sea 
lions  are  used  for  making  seal  leather. 

Seal  Oil  is  made  from  the  fat  of  seals,  and,  like  tish  oils  and  whale  oils, 
is  used  for  leather  dressing,  lubricating  and  burning. 

In  addition  to  wool,  horse  hair,  cow  hair,  and  bristles, 
ANIMAL  HAIRS     the  hairs  of  a  variety  of  animals  find  industrial  applica- 
tions.     One  of  the  principal  uses  of  such  hairs  is  for 
making  felt  hats.      For  this  purpose,  the  fur  is  cut  from  perhaps  one-third  of 
all  the  rabbit  skins  marketed.      Australia  and  New  Zealand  are  the  chief 
countries  supplving  rabbit  skins. 

The  nutria  or  coypu  furnishes  a  large  percentage  of  the  fur  used  for  hat 
making.  This  animal  inhabits  river  banks  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Rio 
de  la  Plata,  in  South  America.  Its  fur  is  covered  with  coarse  hairs  which 
are  first  removed.  When  prepared,  the  fur  of  the  nutria  resembles  that  of 
the  otter,  and  is  sometimes  sold  as  such. 

Clippings  from  muskrat,  beaver,  seal,  otter  and  mink  skins  by  manufac- 
turers of  clothing  are  sold  to  hat-makers,  who  cut  off  the  fur  and  use  it 
for  felting. 

Badger  hair  is  chiefly  used  in  shaving  brushes. 

The  Musk  Deer  inhabits  the  mountains  of  India,  China,  Thibet 
MUSK     and  .Siberia  and  furnishes  a  very  important  perfume,  musk,  from 
a  small  sac  in  the  body  of  the  male  animal.      Some  other  animals, 
such  as  the  musk  rat  and  musk  o.x,  produce  a  similar  substance. 
The  civet  cats  of  Africa  and  Asia  supply  a  similar  perfume. 
The  beaver  yields,  from  a  small  sac  in  its  body,  a  medicinal  substance 
known  as  castoreum. 

Ambergris  (see  Whales). 


70  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 

Whales  of  several  species  furnish  articles  of  commercial  value. 
WHALES     Till'  Greenland  whale  fishery  is  now  the  most  important. 

Whale  oil  or  "  train  "  oil  is  obtained  from  the  blubber  or 
fat  of  whales,  usually  by  cutting  up  the  blubber  and  allowing  the  oil  to  drij) 
out.  It  is  then  heated  and  strained.  It  conies  in  three  grades,  "spring," 
"summer"  and  "winter"  oil.  The  best  is  winter  sperm,  from  which  the 
solid  wax  or  spermaceti  has  deposited  on  cooling.  Whale  oil  is  extensively 
used  in  leather  dressing,  in  the  preparation  of  manila  rope,  for  burning  and 
soap  making.  The  best  grades  of  sperm  oil  are  employed  for  lubricating 
light  machinery  and  in  the  recoil  of  large  cannon. 

Spermaceti  is  a  wax  which  occurs  chiefly  in  the  head  cavities  and  (held 
in  solution  by  sperm  oil)  in  the  blubber  of  the  sperm  whale.  It  is  used  in 
candle  making,  in  pharmacy  and  for  waxing  cartridge  covers. 

Whalebone  is  obtained  from  the  mouth  of  the  whale  and  is  not  bone, 
but  a  substance  in  its  nature  similar  to  hair.  In  the  upper  jaw  w'hales  have 
a  series  of  long  plates  hanging  from  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  with  bristly 
fringes  on  each  side  of  the  tongue.  These  fringed  plates  are  the  whalebone 
or  baleen.  Whalebone  is  used  for  stiffening  in  corsets  and  dresses,  for 
whips  and  canes  and  for  making  brushes.  It  is  sometimes  split  fine  and 
woven  into  silk  goods  to  stiffen  it  and  make  it  rustle. 

Ambergris  is  a  fragrant  substance  formed  in  the  intestines  of  the  sperm 
whale.      It  is  used  as  a  basis  for  perfumes  and  commands  a  very  high  price. 

Sperm  whales  have  teeth  in  their  lower  jaws  which  are  sometimes  used 
as  a  substitute  for  ivory. 

Porpoise  leather  is  made  by  tanning  the  skins  of  the  white  whale. 

Tortoise  shell  consists  of  plates  from  the  back  of  the 

TORTOISE  SHELL     hawk's  bill  turtle.      This  animal  is  captured  in  warm 

waters  in  many  parts  of  the  world.      The  so-called 

shell  is  used  chiefly  for  combs  and  is  much  imitated  in  celluloid.      The  eggs 

and  flesh  of  the  green  turtle  are  used  for  food. 

Sponges  are  obtained  commercially  along  the  shores  of  the 
SPONGES  Mediterranean  from  Sicily  and  Algeria,  eastward,  and  on  the 
shores  of  the  Bahamas,  Cuba  and  other  West  India  islands. 
They  are  the  cleaned  skeletons  of  certain  peculiar  animals  {Spoiigidac) 
which  resemble  plants  and  grow  attached  to  rocks,  shells  or  corals  in  tropical 
waters.  In  life,  the  sponges  are  covered  with  the  soft  gelatinous  body  of  the 
animal,  which  is  frequently  beautifully  colored  and  delicately  formed.  The 
sponges  are  obtained  either  by  dredging  or  diving;  the  gelatinous  parts, 
which  soon  decompose,  are  washed  off,  and  the  cleaned  sponges  bleached, 
and  finally  washed  in  a  weak  solution  of  glycerine  to  prevent  them  from 
becoming  brittle.  Sponges  are  of  many  different  shapes,  sizes  and  qualities. 
Some  animals  of  this  family  have  skeletons  which  instead  of  being  soft, 
absorbent  and  elastic,  are  hard  and  brittle.  These  are  not  commercially 
valuable. 


FISH  -r 

FISH. 
Fish  are  among  the  world's  chief  foods.  Fresh  fish  are  sold  in  most 
countries  in  districts  near  the  sea  coast.  In  many  places,  large  rivers  and 
lakes  supply  considerable  amounts  of  fish  to  the  adjacent  country.  The 
most  important  fisheries  in  the  world  are  the  "Grand  Banks,"  off  the  coast 
of  Newfoundland.  Cod  and  haddock  are  the  principal  fish  caught  there. 
Almost  as  important  are  the'  great  fisheries  of  the  North  Sea,  which  yield 
haddock,  herring,  sole,  cod  and  mackerel.  Other  important  fisheries  are 
along  the  coasts  of  the  northern  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans.  The  fisheries 
of  the  coasts  and  rivers  of  China  supply  a  very  large  quantity  of  food. 

Cod  Fish  are  caught  in  the  north  Atlantic  and  north  Pacific 
COD  FISH     oceans.     They  are  mostly  salted  and  dried,  and  find  an  enor- 
mous sale   in   Roman  Catholic  countries  of  Europe,  Central 
and  South  America  and  the  West  Indies.      The  e.xports  are  chiefly  from 
Norway,  Newfoundland,  Canada  and  the  United  States. 

Cod  liver  oil  is  obtained  by  heating  the  livers  of  the  cod  fish.  The  best 
quality  oil  is  used  in  pharmacy  and  the  less  pure,  darker  colored  oil  in  dress- 
ing chamois. and  other  leather.  The  livers  of  some  other  fish  yield  oil,  often 
sold  under  the  name  of  cod  oil. 

Salmon  are  caught  in  greatest  numbers  in  the  rivers  on  the 
SALMON     west  coast  of  North  America,  from  Oregon  to  Alaska,  although 
many  are  taken  in  Japan,  Siberia  and  Norway.      Most  of  them 
are  canned,  although  some  are  refrigerated  and  shipped  to  eastern  points. 

Herring   are   taken  in    the   north   Atlantic   and   are   salted, 
HERRING     pickled  or  smoked  for  market.     In  Maine,  small  herrings  are 
packed  in  oil  and  come  on  the  market  as  sardines. 
Sardines  are  caught  in  the  Mediterranean  and  on  the  Atlantic  coasts 
of  Portugal,  Spain  and  France. 

Other  varieties  of  fish,  too  numerous  to  mention,  are  extensively  used.    A 

few  of  the  best  known  are:  mackerel,  shad,  blue  fish,  weak  fish,  catfish,  etc. 

The  cuttle  fish  supplies  a  secretion  from  which  true  sepia  pigment  is 

derived.      The  shell  of  the  cuttle  fish,  called  cuttle  bone,  is  sold  for  canaries 

and  other  caged  birds. 

Caviare  is  the  prepared  and  salted  roe  of  sturgeons.  It  is  made  on 
the  shores  of  the  Caspian  and  Black  Seas,  the  Great  Lakes,  Delaware  Bay 
and  some  other  places. 

Isinglass,  a  very  pure  gelatine  used  in  confectionery  and  in 

ISINGLASS     clarifying  wines  and  beer,  consists  of  the  cleaned  and  dried 

swimming  bladders  of  sturgeon  and  some  other  fishes.      It 

is  imitated  in  gelatine  obtained  from  other  sources.      The  name  isinglass 

iii   incorrectly  applied    to    the   mineral  substance   mica   on   account    of    its 

similar  appearance. 

Beche  de  men,  trepangs,  or  holothurians,  are  popular  in  China  for 
making  soup.  These  animals,  often  called  sea  cucumbers  or  sea  slugs, 
are  captured  and  dried  in  large  numbers  on  the  coral  reefs  bordering  the 
islands  adjacent  to  southeastern  Asia. 


72  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 

Menhaden  Oil  is  prepared  from  the  heads  and  intestines  of  fish,  es- 
pecially of  the  menhaden  or  moss  bunker  { Alosa  menhaden)  of  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  America.  It  is  used  in  preparing  leather,  in  paints  and  in 
oiling  ropes. 

Fertilizers  are  prepared  from  the  refuse  of  fish  canneries  and  in  some 
places  from  the  entire  bodies  of  fish  which  are  not  otherwise  valuable. 

SHELL  FISH. 

Oysters  are  the  most  valuable  product  of  the  fisheries  of  the 

OYSTERS     United   States.       More    than    half  of    all    produced    in    this 

country  come  from  Chesapeake  Bay.   Oysters  are  obtained  also 

on  the  coasts  of  Europe,  and  in  many  other  localities. 

Lobsters  and  crabs  as  well  as  oysters  and  clams  are  sold  both  fresh  and 

canned. 

Pearl  oysters  are    important  because  they  produce 

PEARL  OYSTERS  pearls  and  mother-of-pearl.  These  shells  are  found 
off  the  coasts  of  Ceylon,  the  Society  Islands,  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  in  the  Gulf  of  California,  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Per- 
sian Gulf.  The  shells  are  ready  to  gather  when  the'-  are  about  si.x  or  se\-en 
years  old.  Great  care  is  taken  to  leave  the  youi.ger  shells  undisturbed. 
Pearls  are  formed  by  matter  which  the  animal  secretes  to  cover  up  grains  of 
sand  or  other  foreign  substances  which  have  gotten  within  its  shell  and  cause 
irritation,  or  as  the  result  of  disease.  The  best  pearls  and  best  mother-of- 
pearl  are  found  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  at  Ceylon  and  in  the  Society  Islands. 
The  oysters  {Melcagrina)  are  gathered  by  di\ers  who  are  able  by  practice 
to  remain  under  the  water  for  a  minute  and  a  half  to  two  minutes  at  a  time. 
Pearls  are  used  as  jewels.  Mother-of-pearl  is  used  for  knife  handles,  orna- 
ments, buttons,  inlay  work,  etc. 

The  fresh-water  mussels  are  used  to  some  e.xtent  as  mother-of-pearl  and 
have  been  known  to  produce  fine  pearls. 

The  Abalone  { Haliotis)  shell  comes  principalh-  from  the  shores  of  the 
Pacific  and  supplies  a  very  brilliant  mother-of-pearl. 

Shells  of  other  kinds  are  used  for  cutting  cameos.  SnaUs  are  used  in 
some  countries  for  food. 

Corals  are  obtained  in  many  places  and  are  sold  as  curiosities.  Red 
coral,  chiefly  from  the  Indian  Ocean,  is  used  in  jewelry. 

INSECTS. 

The  silk  of  commerce  is  obtained  from  the  cocoons  of  several  species 
SILK     of  insects.      In  these  species,  the  caterpillars  (  or  worms)  form  their 

cocoons  of  an  unbroken  strand  of  silk  which  is  secreted  by  the  in- 
sect in  its  body  as  a  jelly-like  substance.  This  hardens  on  exposure  to  the 
air  as  the  worm  forces  it  out  and  winds  it  about  its  body.  The  common  silk 
worm  (^Bombyx  mori)  is  not  a  wild  insect,  but  is  reared  in  cultivation  ex- 
clusively. Two  distinct  varieties  are  raised,  one  of  which,  the  single-brooded, 
or  "  univoltine,"  of  temperate  regions,  produces  only  one  generation  a  year. 
The  other  form,  known  as  the  many-brooded  or  "  multivoltine  "  worm,  pro- 


I 


INSECT   PRODUCTS 


73 


duces  several  generations  in  a  season.  The  single-brooded  form  [iroduces 
the  greater  amount  of  the  silk  of  commerce.  The  cocoons  of  the  multi- 
vojtine  variety  are  more  difficult  to  reel,  contain  more  floss  and,  therefore, 
yield  more  waste  silk  than  the  uni\'oltine  cocoons.  Silk  worms  are  subject 
to  diseases,  which  often  cause  the  occupation  of  rearing  to  be  unprofitable. 

The  eggs  of  the  univoltine  worm  require  a  certain  amount  of  cold  for 
their  healthy  hatching.  After  the  eggs  hatch,  the  young  worms  are  fed  on 
mulberry  leaves.  They  grow  rapidly  for  about  four  weeks  (sometimes  a  little 
longer)  during  which  time  they  shed  their  skin  (or  moultj  four  times.  When 
fully  grown  they  are  about  three  inches  long  and  of  a  waxy  white  color. 
They  are  then  placed  on  twigs  or  bunches  of  straw  to  spin  their  cocoons. 
Most  of  the  cocoons  are  used  for  reeling  after  the  chrysalis  within  them  has 
been  killed  by  heating  or  steaming  (called  "choking"  the  cocoons).  A 
sufficient  number  of  cocoons  are  reserved  for  the  moths  to  emerge  from,  so 
that  more  eggs  can  be  procured. 

The  common  silk  worm  is  a  native  of  China,  and  it  was  in  that  country 
that  the  value  of  silk  was  first  discovered.  It  is  now  cultivated  in  parts  of 
the  world  where  the  climatic  conditions  are  suitable  and  wliere  the  inhabitants 
work  for  sufficiently  small  wages  to  make  rearing  and  reeling  profitable. 
The  insect  cannot  be  reared  economically  in  the  United  States  because  of  the 
high  rate  of  wages,  and  it  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  import  raw  silk  for  pur- 
poses of  manufacture. 

Raw  Silk  is  obtained  by  unwinding  or  reeling  the  silk  from  the  cocoons, 
but  since  that  from  one  cocoon  is  too  fine  and  too  weak  to  be  handled,  the 
threads  from  several  cocoons  are  reeled  into  a  single  strand.  The  cocoons 
are  softened  by  being  placed  in  warm  water,  and  the  tangled  outer  portion, 
called  "  floss,"  is  brushed  off  and  forms  silk  waste.  Having  found  the  end 
of  the  strand  on  each  cocoon,  the  operator  passes  it  with  others  from  se\eral 
cocoons  twisted  to  a  single  thread,  through  an  agate,  o\er  pulleys  and  upon 
a  wheel  which  turns  slowly.  When  the  cocoon  becomes  unwound  the 
operator  replaces  it  by  another  anil  thus  deftly  keeps  the  threads  of  equal 
thickness.  After  a  certain  amount  is  reeled  and  dried  it  is  twisted  into  hanks. 
This  reeled  silk  is  called  raw  silk  and  himdreds  of  cocoons  are  required  to 
make  a  hank  of  it. 

The  principal  silk  producing  countries  are  China,  Japan,  India,  and  the 
countries  bordering  the  Mediterranean,  particularly  Italy,  southern  France, 
Greece,  Turkey  and  western  Asia. 

China  produces  most  of  the  raw  silk  of  commerce,  and  Japan  and  Italy 
each  about  one  half  as  much.  India  imports  more  silk  than  it  exports. 
The  United  States  imports  cocoons  as  well  as  raw  silk. 

Thrown  Silk,  used  for  weaving,  is  of  two  kinds,  "tram"  and  "  organ- 
zine."  Tram  is  made  of  two  or  sometimes  more  strands  of  raw  silk  loosely 
twisted  and  is  used  for  the  woof  of  silk  fabrics.  Organzine  is  made  of  a 
number  of  strands  of  raw  silk  strongly  twisted  and  is  used  for  the  warp  of 
silk  fabrics. 


74 


COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 


INSECT   PRODUCTS  75 


The  principal  fabrics  made  of  silk  are:  silk,  satin,  plush,  chenille,  crape, 
crepon,  gauze,  damask,  brocade,  pongee  and  ribbons.  Silk  thread  and  cord 
are  also  extensively  used.  The  United  States  is  among  the  leaders  in  the 
manufacture  of  silk  fabrics. 

Silk  Waste  is  the  "  floss"  (or  outer  tangled  mass  of  silk  supporting 
the  cocoons,  which  cannot  be  reeled)  and  the  "reel  tailings"  (that  which 
is  left  when  the  reeling  of  each  cocoon  is  completed).  It  is  imported  by  silk 
manufacturing  countries  in  considerable  amounts. 

Spun  Silk  or  schappe  silk  is  made  from  pierced  cocoons  (from  which 
the  moths  have  emerged)  and  from  waste  silk.  It  is  manufactured  by 
cleaning  and  carding  the  waste  and  then  spinning  it  into  thread  in  somewhat 
the  same  manner  as  cotton  is  spun  into  thread.  Fabrics  made  of  spun  silk 
are  cheaper  than  those  made  of  fine  silk  thread. 

Wild  Silk.  There  are  other  caterpillars  that  produce  silk.  These  are 
the  wild  worms  of  China  and  India,  the  silk  of  which  is  called  "  tussah  "  or 
"tasar,"  and  that  of  Japan  which  is  known  as  ■'Yamamai."  The  moths 
are  large,  buff  colored  insects  and  the  worms  usually  feed  on  oak  leaves. 
The  silk  is  somewhat  inferior  to  that  from  the  cultivated  species,  and  is  used 
for  pongee,  plush  and  coarser  textiles.  Other  less  important  species  of  India 
produce  silk  that  can  be  carded  only. 

(See  Artificial  Silk.) 

The  honey  bee  {^Apis  mellifica)  lives  in  colonies.     The 
THE  HONEY     wild  swarms  usually  select  a  hollow  tree  for  their  home. 
BEE  Domesticated  swarms  are  supplied  with  hives  with  remov- 

able frames.  Each  hi\e  has  one  queen,  thousands  of 
workers,  and  may  have  many  drones.  The  queen  lays  the  eggs.  The 
workers,  stunted  females,  collect  food  and  building  material,  build  cells,  and 
take  care  of  the  brood  and  honey.  The  drones  are  the  male  bees.  They 
cannot  w-ork  because  they  have  not  the  necessary  organs.  Wax  is  secreted 
between  the  abdominal  rings  of  the  workers.  This  they  chew  and  stick  on 
at  the  top  of  the  frame,  building  down.  The  finished  combs  consist  of  two 
sheets  of  horizontal,  six-angled  prismatic  cells,  with  the  openings  turned 
toward  the  outside.  While  the  building  is  still  in  progress  some  of  the 
workers  begin  to  collect.  They  gather  nectar  which  they  digest  into  honey, 
forcing  it  out  through  their  mouths.  They  fill  the  cells  with  it,  and  seal  them 
with  wax.  Into  many  of  the  cells  in  the  center  of  the  hive  the  queen  lays 
fertilized  eggs,  one  in  each.  These  become  workers.  Some  slightly  larger 
cells  receive  one  unfertilized  (t^^^  each.  These  eggs  develop  into  drones. 
A  few  large  irregular  cells  receive  one  fertilized  egg  each.  These  eggs  de- 
velop into  queens.  Many  of  the  other  cells  are  used  as  store-rooms  for 
"bee's  bread"  (pollen)  which  is  mixed  with  honey  for  food  for  the  larvae. 
The  rest  of  the  cells  ser\'e  for  storing  the  honey.  Ta prevent  waste  of  labor 
the  beekeeper  aids  the  bees.  He  furnishes  them  straight  frames  and 
' '  starters  ' '  for  the  combs.  Starters  or  foundations  are  artificial  plates  of 
wax,  to  form  the  beginning  of  the  combs. 


76  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 

Honey.  When  the  cells  in  a  frame  are  filled  and  sealed,  the  frame  is 
taken  out  of  the  hive,  the  caps  of  the  cells  shaved  of!,  and  the  honey  ex- 
tracted by  a  centri/ugal  machine.  This  furnishes  extracted  honey.  The 
empty  combs  are  returned  to  the  hive  to  be  re-filled  by  the  bees.  For  comb 
honey  small  frames  (sections),  which  hold  just  about  a  pound  of  filled  comb 
are  put  in  the  hives.  Honey  is  graded  on  the  market  according  to  the 
flowers  which  yield  it.  White  clover,  buckwheat,  heather,  mesquite,  horse- 
mint,  and  orange  blossoms  yield  some  of  the  best.  A  light  colored  honey 
is  usually  preferred.  Honey  is  produced  in  enormous  quantities  in  northern 
Europe  and  the  LTnited  States.  To  some  extent  it  is  produced  in  all  parts 
of  the  world.  It  is  used  largely  as  a  food,  in  the  manufacture  of  confectionery 
and  sweetmeats,  and  to  some  extent  in  medicine.  A  variety  of  drinks  is 
prepared  from  it.  Extracted  honey  is  often  imitated  by,  or  adulterated  with, 
glucose  or  syrups.  Sometimes  bees  are  fed  with  cheap  syrup,  which  they  seal 
up  just  like  honey.     The  resulting  comb  honey  is,  of  course,  only  comb  syrup. 

Beeswax  is  obtained  from  the  capping  of  combs  for  extracted  honey, 
and  from  condemned  combs.  It  is  melted  usually  by  the  heat  of  the  sun, 
and  moulded  into  flat  cakes  of  various  sizes.  Wax  from  new  comb  is  light 
yellow;  that  from  very  old  comb  is  brown.  It  can  be  bleached  to  a  pure 
white  by  the  action  of  sunlight  and  moisture,  or  by  chemicals,  such  as 
chromic  acid,  nitric  acid,  etc.  Wax  is  used  for  candles,  waxing  floors  and 
threads,  artificial  plants,  figures,  salves,  and  in  encaustic  painting.  Wax  is 
produced  in  the  largest  quantities  in  Europe,  northern  Africa,  and  Chile. 
Almost  all  other  countries  produce  some  wax.  There  are  many  substitutes 
and  adulterants  for  beeswax.  The  most  important  of  these  are  stearine, 
paraffine,  Japan  wax,  carnauba  wax,  pela  wax,  bayberry  wax,  etc. 

Lac  is  a  resinous  material  found  on  the  twigs  of  many  trees  of  India 
LAC  (especially  Buiea/rondosa  and  Ficus  reHgiosa).  This  substance  is 
caused  by  an  insect  (Coccus  /acca)  belonging  to  the  order  of  plant 
lice  and  very  closely  allied  to  the  cochineal  insect.  The  lac  insect  punctures 
the  twigs  for  food  and  then  secretes  a  large  quantity  of  resinous  substance 
as  a  sort  of  cocoon  and  protection  for  itself  and  young.  This  is  known  as 
stick-lac,  and  being  gathered  in  quantity  from  wild  trees  and  those  culti- 
vated for  the  purpose  it  is  \\orked  and  washed  free  of  useless  matter. 
Red  lac  dye  (before  the  use  of  anilines,  extensively  used)  is  extracted  by 
the  washing.      The  dried  and  ground  residue  is  known  as  seed-lac. 

Seed-lac  is  melted  and  poured  out  on  broad  leaves  or  on  metal  plates 
to  harden.  The  thin  sheets  which  result  are  called  shellac  and  the  thick 
plates  or  the  drops  are  called  button-lac. 

Shellac  is  dissolved  in  alcohol  to  make  fine  varnishes.  The  ordinary 
orange  colored  shellac  is  bleached  with  chlorine  to  make  white  shellac. 

Sealing  wax  is  prepared  by  mixing  shellac  with  turpentine  and  various 
resins. 

Shellac  is  used  also  in  putties,  for  sizing  paper,  stiffening  felt  hats,  etc. 
Dissolved  in  a  strong  solution  of  borax,  shellac  and  dyes  are  used  for  draw- 
ing inks  and  some  water  colors. 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS  77 


Cochineal  consists  of  the  dried  bodies  of  insects  ( Ccccus 
COCHINEAL  cacti)  that  belong  to  the  plant  lice  family  and  live  on 
cactus  plants  in  Mexico  and  Central  America.  They  have 
been  introduced  into  Algeria,  the  Canary  Islands  and  the  East  Indies.  The 
insects  are  collected  and  killed  by  placing  them  in  hot  ovens  when  they 
become  coated  with  a  waxy,  whitish  powder.  When  killed  in  hot  water  or 
by  steam  they  appear  black  and  are  not  so  valuable.  The  principal  use  of 
cochineal  is  as  a  dye  for  woolen  fabrics.  The  color  is  known  as  carmine  and 
is  soluble  in  water;  with  alumina  and  tin  salts,  scarlet  lakes  are  formed  which 
are  used  for  oil  and  water  color  pigments. 

Cantharides  are  medicinal  preparations  used  for  blister- 

CANTHARIDES     ing,  plasters,  etc.      They  are  made  from  a  beetle  (Cau- 

tha7is    vesicatoria)    called    Spanish    Fly,    common    in 

southern  Europe.      The  insects  are  bright  metallic  green  with  an  azure  tint, 

about  an  inch  or  less  in  length  and  possess  a  nauseous  smell.      Allied  insects 

(species  of  Mylabris)  are  used  for  similar  purposes  in  India  and  China. 

(See  Oak  Galls. ) 

BIRDS. 
Poultry  and  eggs  figure  largely  in  commerce.      Turkeys,  pigeons,  and 
game  birds  are  chiefly  of  local  importance. 

Eggs,   aside    from   their   use  as  food,  are   valuable   industrially. 

EGGS     The  yolks  are  used  in  preparing  glove  leather  and  other  tawed 

leathers  and  the  whites  (egg  albumen)  in  making  some  kinds  of 

photographic  paper,  in  finishing  fancy  leathers,  in  clarifying  sugar  and  for 

other  purposes. 

Feathers  and  bird  skins  for  ornamental  purposes,  chiefly  for 
FEATHERS     millinery,  are  obtained  from  the  ostrich,  cock,  duck,  turkey, 
pheasant,  heron,  grebe,  and  a  variety  of  other  birds.      Great 
destruction  of  wild  birds  caused  strong  measures  to  be  taken  for  their  protec- 
tion and  there  are  now  stringent  laws  in  this  country  prohibiting  the  sale 
of  many  kinds  of  feathers  and  the  killing  of  certain  birds. 

Feathers  for  beds,  pillows  and  upholstery  are  plucked  from  the  domestic 
goose  and  duck.  Down  is  also  obtained  in  small  quantity  from  nests  of 
the  eider  duck  in  northwest  Europe.  Feathers  are  also  used  for  making 
flies  for  fishing.  Quills  are  used  in  making  camel's  hair  brushes  and  for 
minor  purposes. 

Ostriches  are  the  largest  of  all  existing  birds  {Stnithio). 
OSTRICHES  They  are  natives  of  the  sandy  deserts  of  Africa  and  Arabia 
and  are  domesticated  and  raised  for  their  plumes,  on  ostrich 
farms  chiefly  in  South  and  North  Africa  and  in  smaller  numbers  in  Argen- 
tina and  California.  Ostrich  feathers  constitute  half  of  the  imports  of 
feathers  to  the  United  States.  The  birds  are  caught  and  the  best  plumes 
carefully  cut  from  the  wings  and  tails  once  in  eight  months.  For  millinery, 
handsome  plumes  are  made  by  splitting  off  part  of  the  quill  and  binding 
together  two  or  more  in  order  to  get  feathers  with  apparently  heavy  plumage. 


78  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 


The  plumes  are  then  dyed  and  curled.  Poorer  feathers  are  used  for  making 
feather  dusters.  The  smaller  feathers  from  the  body  of  the  ostrich  are  also 
used  for  millinery.  In  Argentina  and  neighboring  countries,  a  wild  bird,  the 
Rhea,  or  South  American  ostrich,  has  been  extensively  hunted  and  its  feathers 
are  still  exported. 

Edible  Bird's  Nests  come  from  the  Malay  archipelago  and  the  south- 
eastern shores  of  Asia.  They  are  made  by  certain  species  of  swifts  com- 
monly called  swallows.  These  nests  are  constructed  of  a  gelatinous  material 
and  arc  highly  prized  by  the  Chinese  for  making  soups. 

Guano  is  used  as  a  fertilizer.      It  is  composed  largely  of  phos- 
GUANO     phate  of  lime  and  is  mostly  the  excrement  which  has  accumu- 
lated as  a  result  of  the  occupancy  of  dry  islands  by  enormous 
flocks  of  sea  birds.      Some  guano  is  also  taken  from  caves  inhabited  by  bats. 
Large  deposits  of  guano  occur  on  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  in  caves 
in  the  West  Indies  and  Australia. 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS. 

Mineral  Products  maybe  conveniently  classified  as  follows: — 

Metals  and  their  ores. 

Building  Stones. 

Cements  and  cement  materials. 

Glass,  Pottery,  brick  and  materials  used  in  their  manufacture. 

Hydrocarbons,  coal,  asphalt,  petroleum  and  their  products. 

Fertilizers. 

Pigments  and   Dyes. 

Abrasives. 

Lubricants. 

Fibers. 

Gems  and  Ornamental  Stones. 

Medicinal  Substances,  Tanning  Substances. 

Acids,  Alkalis  and  other  products  of  chemical  industrj'. 

In  the  following  pages  these  are  grouped  according  to  the  important 
metals  which  they  contain. 

Iron  is  the  most  useful  metal.  It  occurs  in  all  parts  of  the  world 
IRON  and  in  many  substances.  The  United  States,  England  and  Ger- 
many are  the  greatest  producers  of  iron.  Four  minerals  are  found 
insufficient  abundance  and  contain  enough  iron  to  be  used  as  ores:  hema- 
tite, limonite,  magnetite,  and  siderite.  Rich  deposits  in  many  parts  of  the 
world  are  at  present  unworked,  because  of  lack  of  transportation,  distance 
from  coal  and  limestone,  cost  of  working,  or  on  account  of  impurities  in  the 
ore,  such  as  silica,  phosphorus  or  sulphur. 

Hematite  is  the  ore  most  commonly  mined  and  supplies  almost  three 
fourths  of  the  iron  of  commerce.  It  is  found  in  immense  beds  in  Minnesota 
and  Michigan  and  is  produced  in  large  amounts  in  Alabama  and  other  states. 
Abroad,   Germany,   England,   Spain,   France  and   Russia  are  the  greatest 


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MINERAL  PRODUCTS  79 


producers.  Ore  of  line  quality  is  mined  in  Elba  and  in  Sweden.  This  ore, 
often  called  red  hematite,  is  a  sesquio.xide  of  iron  (Fe^  O3)  and  is  found  in 
varieties  ranging  from  crystallized  to  massive,  metallic  to  earthy  in  appear- 
ance and  red  to  black  in  color.  Different  kinds  are  called  specular  iron  ore, 
micaceous  ore,  red  ocher  and  clay  iron  stone. 

Limonite  or  brown  hematite  is  widely  distributed.  It  is  a  hvdrous  oxide 
of  iron  (2Fe2  O3.3H2O)  and  varies  from  yellow  or  brown  to  black  in  color, 
and  from  submetallic  to  earthy. 

Magnetite  or  magnetic  iron  ore  (Fe,  Oj  and  siderite  (carbonate  of 
iron,  Fe  C  O,)  are  used  in  much  smaller  amounts  than  the  preceding. 

Pig  Iron  is  made  by  smelting  iron  ore  in  a  blast  furnace.  The 
PIG  IRON  ore,  with  carefully  calculated  proportions  of  limestone  and 
fuel,  is  (lumped  in  at  the  top,  and  the  burning  of  the  fuel  is 
assisted  by  the  admission  of  blasts  of  air  around  the  bottom  of  the  furnace. 
An  intense  heat  is  developed  and  the  furnaces  are  kept  running  night  and 
day  for  long  periods,  usually  until  they  need  repairing.  The  limestone  acts 
as  a  "  flux,"  causing  the  ore  to  melt  more  easily  than  it  would  otherwise. 
Metallic  iron  and  slag  are  formed  and  while  melted,  run  down  to  the  bottom 
of  the  furnace  whence  they  are  drawn  off,  fresh  ore,  limestone  and  fuel  being 
frequently  added.  The  slag  being  lighter  floats  on  the  molten  iron  and  is 
drawn  off  separately  while  the  iron  runs  into  ditches  and  depressions  in  the 
sand  floor,  cooling  in  the  form  of  bars  weighing  about  a  hundred  pounds 
each,  called  pigs.  The  fuel  used  in  smelting  iron  is  usually  coke  or  coal. 
Pennsylvania  produces  about  half  of  the  pig  iron  made  in  the  United  States, 
largely  because  of  the  fact  that  ore  from  the  Lake  Superior  deposits  can  be 
cheaply  transported  to  the  neighborhood  of  the  great  coal  fields  and  coke 
ovens  of  western  Pennsylvania. 

Slag  is  used  for  railroad  ballast  and  in  making  cements  and  fertilizers. 

Cast  iron  is  simply  pig  iron  melted  and  moulded  in  properly 

CAST  IRON     shaped  sand  moulds.      It  is  employed  for  making  columns, 

stoves,  large   pipes,   and   parts   of    machines.      It   is   more 

brittle  and  hence  weaker  than  other  forms  of  iron.      It  often  contains  three 

per  cent,  or  more  of  carbon. 

Wrought  iron  is  made  from  pig  iron  by  melting  it  in 
WROUGHT  IRON     a  puddling  furnace  where  the  impurities,  such  as  car- 
bon, sulphur  and  phosphorus,  are  removed.      Unlike 
cast  iron,  it  can  be  altered  in  shape  by  hammering.      It  has  much  greater 
strength  than  cast  iron,  and  is  used  for  making  bars,  plates,  wire,  structural 
material  and  parts  of  machinery. 

Sheet  Iron  is  frequently  coated  with  zinc  (galvanized  iron),  with  tin 
(tin  plate)  or  with  lead  (terne  plate). 

Steel  is  made  by  the  Bessemer,  Siemens-Martin,  open  hearth  and 

STEEL     other  processes.      It  contains  much  less  carbon  than  cast  iron  and 

more  than  wrought   iron.      It  is  used  where  great  strength  or 

hardness  is  needed  for  rails,  beams,  structural  material,  machinery  and  tools 

of  all  kinds.      Steel  wire  rope  is  used  for  a  multitude  of  purposes.      Many 


8o  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 


grades  of  steel  are  jirodiiced  b}'  the  addition  of  small  j)ercentages  of  man- 
ganese, nickel,  chromium,  tungsten,  or  other  metals.  By  sudden  cool- 
ing, or  "tempering"  in  water  or  oil,  steel  can  be  made  of  almost  any- 
desired  hardness. 

The  chemical  compounds  of  iron  are  very  numerous  and  have  many  uses. 

Red,  brown  and  yellow  ochers  are  found  in  the  earth,  which 

OCHERS     when  ground  up  with  linseed  oil  and  mixed  with  turpentine, 

make  paints.      These  ochers  are  oxides  of  iron,  like  hematite 

and  limonite.      Burnt  ochers  are  made  by  roasting  raw  ochers,  and  gi\e  a 

considerable  range  of  color.      Ochers  and  other  mineral  paints  are  prepared 

by  chemical  processes,  often  from  the  by-products  of  other  industries. 

Red  ocher  is  often  called  rouge  and  some  grades  of  this,  washed  free 
from  grit,  are  used  in  polishing  metals. 

Sienna  and  umber  are  similar  to  ochers,  but  contain  manganese. 
Prussian  Blue  is  an  important  dye  containing  iron. 
Copperas  and  other  sulphates  of  iron  are  used  in  dyeing,  ink  making, 
and  for  disinfecting. 

Crude  acetate  (pyrolignite)  of  iron,  prepared  from  a  product  of  wood 
distillation,  is  used  in  dyeing  and  calico  printing. 

Iron  pyriteor  "  fool's  gold,"  a  heavy  brass-yellow  mineral 
IRON  PYRITE  (iron  bisulphide,  Fe  S2)  occurs  abundantly  in  rocks  of  all 
ages.  It  sometimes,  but  not  usually,  carries  gold,  dis- 
seminated invisibly  through  it.  Although  it  contains  46.6  per  cent,  of  iron, 
pyrites  is  useless  as  an  iron  ore  on  account  of  the  sulphur  from  which  it  can- 
not be  successfully  separated,  hence  its  chief  value  is  as  a  source  of  sulphur 
for  chemical  work. 

Its  most  important  commercial  use  is  in  the  manufacture  of  oil  of  vitriol 
or  sulphuric  acid  ( H^  SOJ,  for  which  purpose  it  is  roasted  or  burnt  and 
the  resulting  sulphur  dioxide  gas  (SOj)  is  further  treated.  .Sulphuric  acid 
is  a  chemical  of  great  importance  in  many  industries. 

Pyrites  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of  sulphite  pulp  for  paper  making, 
and  in  the  preparation  of  some  pigments. 

Manganese  ores  are  mined  in  Russia,  Brazil,  India  and  in 
MANGANESE     smaller  amount  in  other  countries.      They  are  used  chiefly 
in  the  production  of  ferro-manganese  and  spiegel-eisen, 
preparations  used  in  steel  making.       They  are  employed  also  in   making 
bleaching  powders  such  as  chloride  of  lime,  in  glass  making,  in  the  manu- 
facture of  oxygen,  and  for  various  other  purposes. 

Pyrolusite  (oxide  of  manganese,  Mn  O2)  and  psilomelane  are  the 
chief  ores. 

Lead  is  the  softest,  heaviest  and  most  malleable  of  the  common 

LEAD     metals,  as   well  as  one  of  the  most  easily  melted.      The  L'nited 

States,  Spain,  Germany  and  Mexico  produce  the  most  lead,  but 

it  is  found  to  some  extent  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world.      In  this  country, 

the  most  important  lead  mines  are  in  Idaho,  Colorado,  Utah,  Missouri  and 

Kansas.      We  import  much  lead  bullion  from  Mexico. 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS  gi 


Galena  (lead  sulphide,  Fb  S)  is  the  only  important  ore.  It  is  a  heavy 
lead-gray  mineral  with  metallic  luster.  It  often  crystallizes  in  cubes,  but 
the  ore  is  generally  granular-massive. 

Carbonates,  sulphates  and  other  lead  compounds  are  less  common  in 
nature. 

Lead  ores  are  often  argentiferous,  carrying  so  much  silver  as  to  be  classed 
as  silver  ores.      After  smelting,  the  silver  is  extracted  from  the  lead  bullion. 

Lead  is  used  for  making  lead  pipe,  sheet  lead  and  lead  shot. 

Type  metal  is  composed  of  lead  and  antimony. 

Solder  contains  lead  and  tin.     Lead  enters  into  pewter  and  other  alloys. 

Sheet  iron  coated  with  lead  is  called  terne  plate. 

White  lead  is  a  basic  carbonate  of  lead  prepared  in  powdered  form. 
Ground  up  with  linseed  oil  and  mi.xed  with  boiled  oil  and  turpentine  it  makes 
the  best  white  paint  known.  White  lead  is  also  employed  in  glazing 
earthenware.  It  is  frequently  mi.xed  or  adulterated  with  cheaper  substances 
such  as  lead  sulphate,  barite  or  chalk. 

Red  lead  (lead  oxide)  is  used  as  a  pigment  and  in  making  flint  glass. 

Litharge  (another  oxide)  is  used  in  preparing  pigments,  as  a  drier  in 
making  boiled  linseed  oil,  and  for  other  purposes. 

Orange  mineral  is  another  lead  pigment. 

Chrome  yellow  (lead  chromate)  is  used  as  a  pigment  and  as  a  dye. 

Lead  acetate  is  used  in  dyeing.      Lead  soap  is  used  in  pharmacy. 
Zinc  is  mined  chiefly  in  Germany,  Belgium  and  the  United  States. 
ZINC      In  this  country,  Missouri  and  Kansas  furnish  the  most  ore.      Some 
is  mined  with  silver  ore  in  Colorado  and  some  comes  from  northern 
New  Jersey. 

Sphalerite,  or  blende  (zinc  sulphide,  Zn  S),  called  "Jack"  by  miners, 
is  the  important  ore.  It  is  black,  brown  or  red  in  color,  and  often  breaks 
with  a  bright  cleavage.  This  mineral  frequently  occurs  with  ores  of  lead. 
Carbonates,  silicates  and  oxides  of  zinc  are  found. 

The  crude  metal  called  spelter  is  obtained  by  distilling  the  roasted 
ore.  or  from  the  mi.xture  of  \arious  metals  in  the  "  matte"  from  smelters. 

Zinc  is  used  in  electric  batteries,  in  making  hydrogen,  in  the  cyanide 
process  for  the  recovery  of  gold,  and  in  making  etched  plates  for  printing. 
Sheet  zinc  finds  various  industrial  applications. 

Galvanized  iron  is  made  by  dipping  sheet  iron  in  melted  zinc,  the 
thin  zinc  coating  preventing  rusting  of  the  iron. 

Brass  is  an  alloy  of  copper  with  zinc. 

German  silver  contains  zinc,  copper  and  nickel,  and  zinc  enters  into 
various  other  alloys,  including  some  kinds  of  solder. 

Zinc  oxide  or  zinc  white  is  an  important  pigment.  It  has  less  co\er- 
ing  power  and  is  less  \aluable  than  white  lead. 

Zinc  sulphate  is  used  as  a  pigment,  in  dyeing  and  as  a  disinfectant. 
Zinc  chloride  is  used  as  a  wood  preservative. 


82  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 


Copper,  from  an  economic  standpoint,  is  one  of  the  most  im- 

COPPER     portant  metals.      The  United  States  is  the  greatest  producer. 

Nearly  all  of  the  output  is  from  mines  in  Montana,  the  Lake 

Superior  district,  and  Arizona.      Copper  is  produced  in  smaller  quantities  in 

Spain,  lapan,  Chile,  Germany,  and  many  other  parts  of  the  world. 

The  ores  \ary  widely  in  composition  and  occurrence.  Native  copper 
in  metallic  particles  mixed  with  rock  is  the  principal  ore  at  the  Lake  Superior 
mines.  Chalcopyrite  and  bornite  (sulphides  of  copper  and  iron)  are  found 
in  many  parts  of  the  world.  Chalcocite  (copper  sulphide)  is  an  important 
ore  in  Montana.  Malachite  and  azurite  (carbonates  of  copper)  are  common 
ores  in  Arizona.  Copper  oxides  and  copper  silicate  are  also  found.  These 
ores  are  of  many  colors  and  often  occur  associated  with  or  carrying  other 
metals  such  as  gold,  silver,  lead  and  zinc. 

The  ores,  after  concentration,  are  usually  roasted  and  smelted,  and  the 
resultant  ' '  copper  matte ' '  is  separated  by  refiners  into  the  various  metals 
which  it  contains.      Electrolytic  processes  of  refining  are  largely  employed. 

The  demand  for  copper  has  increased  enormously  in  recent  years,  due 
to  its  use  in  electrical  work,  where  it  is  mostly  employed  in  the  form  of  cop- 
per wire. 

Copper  is  used  also  for  making  coins,  pipes,  kettles,  cartridge  shells, 
plates  for  engraving,  for  plating  ships,  roofing  and  plumbing.  Compounds 
of  copper  also  furnish  blue  and  green  dyes  and  pigments. 

Brass  is  an  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc. 

Bronze  contains  copper  and  tin,  sometimes  with  the  addition  of  zinc. 
Phosphor  bronze,  aluminium  bronze,  statuary  bronze,  bell  metal,  gun  metal 
and  Britannia  metal,  are  other  alloys  containing  copper. 

Blue  vitriol  or  copper  sulphate  is  the  most  important  of  the  numerous 

chemical  compounds  which  contain  copper.      It  is  used  in  the  preparation  of 

electrolytic  baths,  in  dyes  and  pigments,  in  sih'er  refining  and  as  an  antiseptic. 

Gold  is  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world.      The  United  States, 

GOLD     South  Africa  and  Australia  contain  the  richest  gold  fields  known. 

In  this  country,  Colorado,  California,  Alaska  and  South  Dakota 

are  the  largest  producers. 

Gold  is  usually  in  minute  particles  disseminated  through  rocks  or  sands. 
When  in  rock,  it  is  ordinarily  found  in  veins  of  quartz,  often  associated  with 
pyrite  or  other  sulphides. 

Tellurides  of  gold  are  mined  in  Colorado  and  Transylvania. 

Gold  washing.  Placer  deposits  consist  of  beds  of  sand  or  gravel 
deri\ed  from  the  wearing  away  of  rocks,  and  contain  gold  in  grains  and 
nuggets.  Some  placers  are  extremely  rich  and  from  them  the  metal  is 
obtained  by  washing.  The  crudest  method  is  by  rocking  a  small  quantity 
of  the  gravel  in  a  basin  of  water,  the  particles  of  gold,  being  heavy,  sink  to 
the  bottom  and  are  easily  collected.  On  a  larger  scale,  gold-bearing  gravels 
are  washed  by  a  current  of  water  through  sluices  or  long  wooden  gutters. 
The  gold  is  caught  by  strips  of  wood  called  "riffles,"  fastened  diagon- 
allv  in  the  bottom  of  the  sluice. 


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:\IIXERAL  PRODl'CTS 


S3 


84  COMMEKCIAI,  RAW  MATERIALS 

Where  there  is  abundant  water,  banks  of  gravel  are  sometimes  washed 
down  bv  strong  jets  directed  on  the  bank  through  nozzles,  and  the  gravel  is 
carried  by  the  water  through  sluices.      This  is  termed  hydraulic  mining. 

Gold  recovery.  Rocks  which  contain  gold,  after  breaking,  are  crushed 
to  a  fine  pulp  with  water,  in  stamp  mills.  The  pulp  is  passed  over  copper 
plates  covered  with  mercury  which  catches  and  forms  an  amalgam  with  the 
particles  of  gold.  It  is  usual  to  separate,  by  concentrating  machines,  the 
heavy  from  the  lighter  part  of  the  pulp  after  it  passes  the  plates,  and  to 
treat  the  heavy  concentrates  by  smelting,  chlorination,  or  the  cyanide  process 
to  recover  gold  which  was  not  caught  by  amalgamation.  Gold  is  soluble  in 
a  solution  of  cyanide  of  potassium  and  may  be  recovered  from  the  solution 
by  treatment  with  zinc.  This  process  is  successful  with  ores  which  contain 
comparatively  little  gold  and  has  made  possible  the  profitable  working  of 
such  deposits  as  those  in  South  Africa. 

Gold  is  used  chiefly  for  jew-elry  and  currency.      It  is  valued  on  account 

of  its  rarity,  its  beauty  and  because  of  the  fact  that  it  does  not  readily  tarnish 

and  is  not  attacked  by  ordinary  acids.      It  is  almost  always  alloyed  with 

copper  or  with  copper  and  silver.     United  States  gold  coin  contains  9  parts 

of  gold  to  I  of  copper.      Pure  gold  is  said  to  be  24  carats  fine,  and  the  best 

ordinarily  used  is  about  18  carats  fine.      Gold  is  used  also  for  making  gold 

leaf  for  gilding,  and  in  dentistry.      Chloride  of  gold  is  used  in  photography. 

Platinum  is  a  rare  metal  found  with  gold  in  grains,  in  placer 

PLATINUM     washings.      Russia  produces  ninety  per  cent  of  the  world's 

supply  and  the   remainder   comes   from    Colombia.      Small 

amounts  are  found  in  California,  Wyoming,  Canada  and  Australia. 

It  is  used  in  the  form  of  very  fine  wires  in  incandescent  electric  lamps 
to  connect  the  terminals  with  the  carbon  filament.  It  is  also  employed  in 
smaller  amount  by  chemists  and  dentists. 

Associated  with  this  metal  is  another  rarer  one,  iridium,  which  is  em- 
ployed for  the  points  of  gold  pens. 

Silver  is  mined  throughout  the  Rocky  Mountain  and  the  Andes 
SILVER     regions  of  America,  in  Australia,  and  to  a  small  extent  in  many 
other   parts  of  the  world.      In  this    country,    Colorado,    Mon- 
tana, Utah  and  Idaho  are  the  greatest  producing  states.      Mexico,  Australia, 
Bolivia,  Chile,  Peru,  and  Germany  take  rank  after  the  United  States  as  pro- 
ducers of  this  metal. 

Argentiferous  galena  is  the  most  common  ore  and  the  source  of  a 
very  large  percentage  of  the  silver  produced  in  the  world.  The  amount  of 
silver  carried  by  this  sulphide  of  lead  varies  greatly,  but  a  very  few  ounces 
of  silver  in  a  ton  of  ore  make  it  profitable  to  work  many  deposits  of  lead 
which  could  not  otherwise  be  mined. 

Ores  of  zinc  and  copper,  occurring  separately  or  associated  with  ores 
of  lead  and  other  metals,  frequently  carry  silver.  Almost  all  gold  is  found 
alloyed  with  a  small  percentage  of  silver.  Pure  silver  occurs  in  small 
amount.  Most  of  the  silver  compounds  in  nature  are  sulphides,  such  as 
argentite,  pvrargyrite,  stephanite  and   |)olybasite,  usually  containing  silver 


\ 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS 


85 


with  arsenic  or  antimony.  Chlorides  and  bromides  (cerargyrite  and  bromy- 
rite )  are  common  ores  in  some  parts  of  Mexico,  the  western  United  States 
and  Australia. 

Silver  is  extracted  from  ores  by  smelting,  and  refining  the  resultant 
mi.xture  of  metals;  by  amalgamation  with  mercury,  or  various  other  pro- 
cesses. It  is  made  into  useful  and  ornamental  articles  for  the  household  and 
personal  adornment,  many  of  which  are  formed  of  some  other  metal  or  alloy 
covered  with  a  thin  plating  of  silver  deposited  by  the  aid  of  an  electric  cur- 
rent from  a  solution  of  cyanide  of  silver  and  potassium.  The  tarnish  often 
seen  on  silver  is  due  to  its  union  with  sulphur  absorbed  from  gases  formed 
by  burning  coal. 

Solid  silver  articles,  including  coins,  are  almost  never  made  of  the  pure 
metal,  but  are  alloyed  with  copper  to  harden  them.  The  price  of  silver  has 
declined  greatly  within  the  past  thirty  years,  so  that  at  present  there  is  less 
than  fifty  cents  worth  of  silver  in  a  silver  dollar. 

Mirrors  are  made  by  coating  one  side  of  glass  with  silver  from  a  solu- 
tion. Mercury  was  formerly  used  for  this  purpose.  Silver  chloride  and 
siher  nitrate  are  used  in  photographv. 

The  mixture  of  various  cheaper  metals  forms  alloys  such  as  pewter  and 
white  metal,  which  resemble  silver  in  color  and  luster. 

Mercury  or  quicksilver  is  found  in  Spain,  the  United  States, 
MERCURY     Austria,  Italy  and  Russia.      Nearly  all  of  the   mercury  ob- 
tained in  the  United  States  comes  from  California  and  a  much 
smaller   amount  from   Texas.      One  half  of  our  production  is  exported  to 
Mexico,  China  and  Central  America. 

This  metal  is  obtained  from  cinnabar  (red  sulphide  of  mercury,  Hg  S). 
It  occasionally  occurs  in  a  pure  metallic  state  and  in  a  few  rare  compounds. 
It  is  extracted  by  heating  (distilling)  the  ore.  The  mercury,  which  volatilizes 
readily,  is  condensed  as  the  gases  are  cooled  after  passing  from  the  furnace. 

Mercury  is  peculiar  in  being  a  heavy  metal  which  is  liquid  at  ordinary 
temperatures.  It  solidifies  at  38°  below  zero  F. ,  and  boils  at  675°  F. ,  a 
lower  temperature  than  the  boiling  point  of  any  other  common  metal.  It  is 
used  iti  the  extraction  of  gold  and  silver  by  amalgamation.  It  is  also  used 
in  silvering  mirrors,  for  thermometers  and  barometers. 

Amalgams  of  mercury  with  other  metals,  are  used  for  filling  teeth  and 
other  purposes. 

Vermillion  is  artificially  prepared  cinnabar,  and  this,  as  well  as  other 
compounds  of  mercury,  are  used  as  pigments. 

Calomel  and  corrosive  sublimate  (chlorides  of  mercury)  are  used  in 
medicine. 

Certain  mercury  compounds  called  fulminates  are  dangerous  explosives. 

Aluminium  or  aluminum  is  a  metal  which  has  been  suc- 

ALUMINIUM     cessfully   refined   for    commercial   use   only  within    recent 

years.      It  is  lighter  than  any  other  metal  in  common  use 

and  is  very  strong  in  proportion  to  its  weight.      It  is  readily  ductile,  does  not 

€asilv  tarnish,  and  is  a  remarkabl\- good  conductor  of  electricity.      One  of 


86  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 

its  most  important  uses  is  as  an  addition  to  iron  and  steel,  preventing  bubbles 
and  waste  in  castings.  It  is  extensively  employed  as  an  electric  conductor. 
It  is  used  for  the  construction  of  some  kinds  of  machinery,  for  hulls  and 
plating  for  boats,  cooking  utensils,  combs  and  other  articles.  As  a  substi- 
tute for  stone  it  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  lithographic  plates.  Alloys 
of  aluminium  with  copper  and  other  metals,  forming  aluminium  bronzes,  are 
used  for  a  great  variety  of  purposes. 

Aluminium  occurs  very  abundantly  in  the  crust  of  the  earth  and  forms 
numerous  useful  compounds. 

Bauxite  (aluminium  hydrate,  Al,  O,.  2HjO)  is  the  ore  from  which 
aluminium  is  e.xtracted,  and  the  only  mineral  from  which  it  is  now  obtained 
commercially.  It  is  a  clay  of  peculiar  composition,  being  a  hydrate,  while 
most  clays  are  silicates.  This  ore  is  mined  in  only  a  few  places  in  the  world. 
In  the  United  States  it  occurs  in  Arkansas,  Alabama  and  Georgia,  and  in 
Europe  in  France  and  Ireland. 

In  the  refining  of  aluminium,  calcined  bau.xite  is  decomposed  by  a  strong 
electric  current.  In  this  country,  the  power  which  supplies  the  electric 
current  is  generated  by  Niagara  Falls,  where  the  metal  is  refined. 

Cryolite  (fluoride  of  aluminium  and  sodium,  sNaF.  AlF,)  is  a  white 
mineral  which  is  mined  only  in  Greenland.  It  was  formerly  used  as  an  ore 
of  aluminium.  At  present  it  is  of  value  in  chemical  manufacture  as  a  source 
of  fluorides  and  other  salts,  such  as  carbonate  of  soda,  soda  ash,  alum, 
alumina,  etc. 

Aluminium  compounds.  Corundum,  feldspar,  and  clay  contain  large 
percentages  of  aluminium,  laut  are  not  suitable  for  use  as  ores  of  the  metal, 
because  they  contain  silica. 

Corundum  ( aluminium  o.\ide,  Alj  O,)  is,  ne.xt  to  diamond, 
CORUNDUM  the  hardest  natural  mineral.  In  Ceylon,  and  occasionally 
in  Montana,  North  Carolina  and  other  places,  it  occurs  well 
crystallized  and  transparent,  sometimes  colorless  or  blue  (sapphire)  and 
sometimes  red  (ruby).  These  are  x'aluable  for  gems.  When  occurring  pure 
or  nearly  so,  but  not  transparent,  as  it  does  in  Canada,  North  Carolina, 
Alabama  and  Montana,  it  is  ground  up  for  use  as  an  abrasi\e. 

Emery.  A  less  pure  variety  called  emery  contains  considerable  iron 
and  is  not  quite  so  hard.  It  is  extensively  used  as  an  abrasi\e.  Emery 
is  found  at  Chester,  Mass.,  Peekskill,  New  York,  and  in  Greece  and  Asia 
Minor.  As  abrasives  these  minerals  are  used  in  powder  of  different  degrees 
of  fineness  or  made  into  wheels,  sharpening  stones,  cloth,  or  paper,  and  held 
together  by  some  cementing  material.  Corundum  (alundmn)  for  abrasi\-e 
purposes  is  also  made  artificially. 

Feldspar  is  found  as  a  constituent  of  all  granites  and  similar 
FELDSPAR     rocks.     When  it  occurs  in  moderately  pure  masses,  as  it  does 
in    Delaware   County,    Pennsylvania,   in    Connecticut,   New 
York  and  Norway,  it  is  mined  and  used  in  making  pottery.      Feldspars  are 
silicates  of  aluminium  with  other  metals  such  as  potassium,  sodium,  or  cal- 
cium;  the  most  common  is  orthoclase  (K./).  Al^  0^.6Si  O^). 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS 


^7 


Clay  is  usually  a  product  of  the  natural  decay  or  alteration  of 
CLAY  feldspar.  It  varies  greatly  in  composition  like  the  rocks  from 
which  it  is  derived.  It  is  composed  chiefly  of  hydrous  silicates  of 
aluminium,  magnesium,  and  other  metals.  The  purest  clay,  kaolin,  is 
hydrous  aluminium  silicate  (2H,0.  Al.^  O3. aSiOJ.  It  is  used  with  other 
substances  in  making  the  finest  pottery.  Less  pure  clays  are  used  in  making 
tile,  earthenware,  stoneware,  terra  cotta,  brick  and  firebrick. 

Many  clays  are  found  in  the  earth,  mixed  with  sand  and  grit  from  which 
they  are  separated  by  washing.  This  process  consists  of  grinding  and  stirring 
the  clay  up  in  water  which  carries  off  the  fine  particles  in  suspension  while  the 
coarse  part  remains  behind.  The  water  containing  the  fine  particles  is  con- 
ducted to  settling  tanks  and  allowed  to  stand  till  the  pure  clay  is  deposited. 

Clays  are  fitted  for  making  pottery  in  proportion  to  the  ease  with 
which  they  can  be  moulded  and  shaped  when  wet  and  their  change  to  a 
hard  unalterable  condition  when  they  are  fired.  Many  kinds  of  clay  are  used 
in  making  pottery  and  on  their  nature  and  proportions  and  the  heat  to  which 
they  are  subjected  in  firing  depends  the  quality  of  the  resulting  product. 

Porcelain,  or  china,  is  made  from  a  mixture  of  kaolin,  quartz  and  feld- 
spar finely  powdered,  reduced  to  a  paste  with  water  and  shaped  into  the  de- 
sired form.  The  moulding  is  done  either  on  a  potter's  wheel  or  in  prepared 
moulds.  The  fragile  ' '  biscuit ' '  ware  is  then  burnt  or  ' '  fired  "  in  a  kiln,  after 
which  it  is  decorated,  a  glaze  applied,  composed  of  similar  materials  in 
proper  proportions  to  fuse  to  a  glass,  after  which  the  articles  are  re-fired. 
The  decoration  is  sometimes  applied  outside  instead  of  under  the  glaze.  A 
' '  salt  glaze  ' '  is  given  to  earthenware  by  throwing  wet  salt  in  the  fire  when  the 
articles  are  burnt.  The  salt  decomposes  on  contact  with  the  fire,  forming  soda, 
which  attacks  the  silica  in  the  pottery  and  produces  a  thin  glassy  coating. 

In  the  United  States,  Ohio,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania  and  West  Vir- 
ginia are  the  most  important  pottery-making  states-.  Fine  wares  are  made 
abroad  in  England,  France,  Germany,  Austria,  Japan  and  China. 

Bricks  are  made  of  the  common  kinds  of  clay  containing  enough  sand 
to  prevent  undue  shrinking.  The  clay  is  ground  to  a  smooth  paste  with 
water,  moulded  into  a  rectangular  rod  and  cut  into  lengths.  Bricks  are 
burnt  in  heaps  or  in  kilns  and  if  the  clay  contains  iron,  they  assume  a  red 
color.  The  leading  states  which  make  brick  are  Pennsyhania,  Ohio,  Illinois, 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Missouri.  The  kinds  which  will  sustain  the 
greatest  heat  are  called  fire-brick. 

Certain  clays  are  used  for  "loading"  paper.  Others  are  mixed  with 
limestone  in  making  Portland  cement. 

Fuller's  earth  is  a  peculiar  clay  used  in  preparing  woolen  fabrics  and 
also  for  filtering  oils. 

Slates  and  shales  are  closely  related  to  clays.      They  often  con- 
SLATES     tain  lime,  and  approach  clayey  limestone  in  composition. 

Slate  is  a  \  ery  important  roofing  material.  It  is  used  also 
for  writing  slates,  slate  pencils,  blackboards,  mantels,  etc.  Pennsylvania 
and  Vermont  produce  nearly  all  obtained  in  this  country. 


88  COMMERCIAI.  RAW  MATKRIAI.S 

Alum  is  made  artiticially  by  various  processes  from  clays  and 
ALUM  iioni  minerals,  such  as  cryolite  and  alunite.  Chemically  it  is  a  sul- 
phate of  aluminium  and  potassium  (K,  SO,.Alj  (SO,\  .24  HjO). 
It  is  used  in  tannine-  leather,  as  a  mordant  in  dyeino-,  in  printinvj,  in  baking 
powders,  in  medicine,  in  sizing  paper,  in  stucco  work  for  hardening  plaster, 
in  photography,  in  rendering  wood  and  fabrics  fire-proof,  in  carbonizing 
wool,  in  bleaching,  etc. 

Other  compounds  such  as  ahmiinium  sulphate  are  also  used  in  the  arts. 

Tin  is  not  found  in  paying  quantities  in  the  United  States.      Mines 

TIN     in  the  Malav  Peninsula  and  on  the  neighboring  islands  of  Banca  and 

Billiton  produce  over  three-fourths  of   the  world's  supply  of    this 

metal.      It  is  obtained  in  Bolivia,  Australia  and  Tasmania  and  in  Cornwall, 

England  (in  ancient  times  the  only  source  of  tin).      It  occurs  also  in  China, 

Me.\ico,  California,  and  South  Dakota,  but  not  in  sufficient  quantity  to  make 

its  mining,  at  present,  profitable. 

The  only  important  ore  of  tin  is  cassiterite  (tin  o.xide,  Sn  Oj).  It  some- 
times occurs  in  narrow  veins  through  granite  rocks,  but  is  usually  found  as 
' '  stream  tin ' '  in  small  particles  or  pebbles  in  deposits  of  gravel  from  which 
it  is  separated  bv  washing  (see  Gold  Washing).  It  melts  at  a  compara- 
tively low  temperature  and  is  easily  refined. 

Tin  Plate.  Not  being  acted  on  readily  by  weak  acids,  nor  by  vege- 
table or  animal  juices,  and  resisting  oxkiation  under  ordinary  conditions,  tin 
is  used  extensively  as  a  protective  coating  on  sheet  iron.  In  making  tin 
plate,  sheet  iron  is  thoroughly  cleaned  by  acid  baths,  then  greased  with 
melted  tallow  or  palm  oil  and  di|iped  in  a  bath  of  molten  tin.  A  layer  of 
palm  oil  or  other  material  covers  the  melted  tin  to  prevent  contact  with  the 
air.  A  thin  layer  of  tin  sticks  to  the  sheet  iron  which  is  passed  through 
rollers  to  squeeze  off  superfluous  metal  and  perfect  the  coating. 

Tin  plate  is  used  for  tin  cans  for  oil,  fruit,  vegetables,  fish,  etc.,  for  roof- 
ing and  for  kitchen  utensils.  \'ery  large  quantities  are  used  by  petroleum 
refiners  and  by  canneries  in  general. 

Tin  is  sometimes  used  for  pipes  and  other  articles  of  block  tin. 

Tin  Foil  is  made  by  coating  sheet  lead  with  tin  and  then  beating  it  into 
thin  sheets. 

Bronze  and  gun  metal  contain  copper  and  tin;  pewter  contains  tin  and 
lead.     Solder,  type  metal,  white  metal  and  Britannia  metal  all  contain  tin. 

Tin  chlorides  and  other  tin  salts  are  used  as  mordants  in  dyeing,  and 
some  compounds  are  used  in  coloring  glass  and  porcelain.  The  United 
States  imports  metallic  tin  from  the  East  Indies  and  from  England,  as  well 
as  considerable  quantities  of  tin  plate  from  the  latter  country. 

Antimony  is  produced  in  Germany.   France,   Italy,  and  in 
ANTIMONY     smaller  amounts    in    Hinigary,   the    United   States,  Japan, 
Servia,  Borneo,  Bolivia,  and  other  countries. 

The  chief  ore  is  stibnite  (antinumy  suljihide,  Sb,  S, )  a  lead  grey  mineral. 
Considerable  amounts  are  also  obtained  from  antimony  oxides  and  from  ores 
of  lead  which  carr\-  antimony. 


MINERAL  PRODLCTS 


S9 


This  metal  enters  into  many  useful  alloys. 

Type  metal  contains  leaS  and  antimony,  often  with  a  little  tin  and  bis- 
muth: Britannia  metal  contains  tin,  antimony  and  copper;  pewter  sometimes 
contains  antimony  in  addition  to  tin  and  lead. 

Anti-frlction  metals,  such  as  white  metal  and  babbitt  metal,  consist 
of  antimony  and  tin  with  small  quantities  of  lead,  copper,  zinc,  bismuth 
and  nickel. 

Tartar  Emetic  iantimony  potassium  tartrate)  is  used  in  medicine. 
Other  salts  of  antimony  are  used  as  mordants  in  dyeing. 

.■\  sulphide  of  antimony  is  used  for  vulcanizing  red  rubber,  and  another 
compKJund  forms  a  brilliant  red  pigment  called  antimony  cinnabar. 

Bismuth  is  found   in   Bolivia  and  Australia  and  in  smaller 

BISMUTH     quantities  in  Sa.xony,  England  and  some  other  countries.     It 

is  a  rare  metal  with  a  low  melting  point,  used  in  fusible  metal 

alloys.     These  fusible  metals  usually  contain  bismuth  with  lead,   tin  and 

cadmium.     They  are  used  for  safety  plugs  for  electric  wiring,  steam  boilers, 

and  automatic  fire  extinguishers. 

Bismuth  compounds  are  used  in  pharmacy,  and  in  coloring  porcelain 
and  glass. 

Type  metal  and  anti-friction  metals  usually  contain  some  bismuth. 

Nickel  is  mined  princijxiUy  in  the  province  of  Ontario,  Canada, 
NICKEL     in  Xew  Caledonia,  and  in  Xorway.     Small  quantities  are  found 
in  Missouri,  Oregon,  Idaho,  North  Carolina  and  other  states 
and  in  a  few  pans  of  Europe. 

Gamierite,  a  g^een  mineral  (a  hydrous  silicate  of  nickel  and  magne- 
sium"), is  the  most  common  ore.  It  is  e.xported  from  New  Caledonia  and 
refined  chiefly  in  France  and  Germany.  Other  compounds  of  nickel,  such 
as  arsenides  and  sulphides  occur.  .All  of  these  ores  are  generally  asso- 
ciated with  serpentine  and  chrome.  The  Canadian  ore  is  magnetic  iron 
pyrites  (pyrrhotite,  Fe„  S,.")  which  carries  from  three  to  eight  per  cent, 
of  nickel. 

A  small  percentage  of  nickel  in  steel  increases  greatly  its  hardness  and 
toughness.  Nickel  steel  is  used  for  armor  plate,  parts  of  machinery,  rails, 
and  wire  rope. 

Nickel  is  used  for  electro  plating  and  for  making  \-arious  white  alloy's. 
German  Silver  contains  copper,  zinc  and  nickeJ.     Nickel  coins  con- 
tain copper  and  nickel. 

Cobalt  is  a  rare  metal,  everywhere  found  with  nickel.      It  is 
COBALT     almost  never  used  in  the  metallic  state,  but  its  compounds  are 
used  for  coloring  blue  glass  and  for  making  pigments,  (chiefly 
cobalt  blue  and  smalt)  for  painting,  printing  and  china  decoration. 

Magnesium  occurs  in  many  limestone  rocks  in  almost  all 

MAGNESIUM     parts  of  the  world  and  is  found  in  a  variety  of  minerals. 

In  the  metallic  state  it  bums  readily  and  is  used  chiefly  by 

photographers,  either  in  the  form  of  magnesium  ribbon,  or  in  flash  powders, 

to  produce  a  brilliant  light. 


go 


COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 


Its  principal  natural  compounds  are  chlorides  and  sulphates,  found  at 
Stassfurt,  Germany;  magnesium  carbonate  (magnesite),  obtained  in  Greece, 
Austria  and  California;  magnesium  calcium  carbonate  (dolomite);  hydrous 
magnesium  silicates,  talc  or  soapstone,  serpentine,  asbestos  and  meerschainn. 
The  metal  is  reduced  from  the  chlorides. 

Magnesite  is  used  in  making  carbon  dioxide  gas  for  charging  soda 
water,  mineral  waters  and  beer,  and  for  refrigerating.  After  heating 
maernesite,  the  residue,  called  calcined  mao-nesite  or  magfnesia,  is  made  into 
bricks  or  concrete  and  used  as  refractory  lining  for  steel  furnaces.  Mag- 
nesia is  also  worked  into  fireproof  and  non-conducting  coatings  on  steam 
pipes,  and  to  a  small  extent  in  toilet  powders. 

When  the  carbon  dioxide  is  disengaged  from  magnesite  by  sulphuric 
acid,  Epsom  Salt  (Mg  SO,. 7  H^O)  is  formed. 

Magnesite  and  dolomite  are  both  used  in  preparing  sulphite  liquors  for 
use  in  wood  pulp  paper  making. 

Dolomite  is  extensively  used  as  a  building  stone  under  the  name  of 
magnesian  limestone,  or  simply  limestone,  and  is  harder  and  more  durable 
than  purer  limestone.      Calcined  dolomite  is  used  as  a  lining  for  iron  furnaces. 

Talc  is  a  very  soft  mineral,  easily  scratched  by  the  finger  nail.  It  is 
found  as  talc  rock  (steatite  or  soapstone)  in  deposits  in  Maryland,  Virginia, 
North  Carolina,  New  Jersey,  Pennsyh^ania  and  other  states,  and  is  imported 
from  France  and  Italy.  It  is  used  in  making  bath  and  laundry  tubs,  fire- 
brick, hearthstones,  mantels,  sinks,  griddles,  slate  pencils,  tailor's  pencils, 
gas  tips  and  other  articles.  When  powdered  it  is  employed  for  foundry 
facings,  lubricating  machinery,  dressing  skins  and  leather,  in  paints  and  toilet 
powders.  A  peculiar  fibrous  variety  from  New  York  is  used  as  ' '  filling  ' ' 
or  "loading"  in  paper. 

Meerschaum  (Sepiolite)  is  a  clay-like  mineral  found  in  Asia  Minor. 
It  occurs  in  lumps  of  irregular  shape  and  is  used  for  carving  into  pipes  and 
cigar  holders. 

Serpentine  is  a  greenish  rock  found  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  It  is 
often  used  as  building  stone.  Verd-antique  is  a  natural  mixture  of  serpen- 
tine with  marble,  which,  when  polished,  is  used  for  ornamental  work. 

Asbestus,  or  asbestos,  as  it  is  usually  found  on  the  market,  is  a  fibrous 
variety  of  serpentine  (called  chrysotile).  It  is  mined  in  the  province  of 
Quebec,  Canada,  and  is  valuable  on  account  of  its  incomliustibility  and  as  a 
non-conductor  of  heat.  It  is  spun  and  woven,  usually  with  a  small  quantity 
of  vegetable  fiber  to  give  greater  strength,  and  made  into  theatre  curtains, 
mats,  iron  holders,  building  paper,  etc.  It  is  largely  used  as  a  protective 
covering  on  steam  pipes  and  boilers.  It  is  also  used  in  paints.  A  fibrous 
variety  of  amphibole  is  also  known  as  asbestos,  the  best  being  the  long- 
fiber  Italian. 

Mineral  Wool,  sometimes  called  rock  wool,  silicate  cotton  or  asbestos, 
is  an  artificial  substance  produced  by  melting  slag  and  limestone,  and  con- 
verting the  molten  mixture  to  a  very  fine  fibrous  state  by  means  of  a  steam 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS  gj 


blast.  It  is  used  for  much  the  same  purposes  as  true  asbestos,  but  cannot  be 
spun  into  thread.  It  is  extensively  employed  as  a  fire-proof  packing 
material  in  walls  and  floors  and  as  a  non-conducting  packing  around  boilers 
and  steam  pipes  and  in  refrigerators. 

Other  metals  are  seldom  refined,  not  being  at  present 
OTHER  METALS     of  much  commercial  use  in  the  pure  state.      Calcium, 
sodium,  and  potassium  form  many  useful  compounds, 
both  in  their  natural  state  and  when  prepared  by  chemical  processes. 

Titanium  is  not  an  uncommon  and  usually  a  very  undesirable  con- 
stituent of  iron  ores.  Menaccanite  is  a  mineral  containing  titanium,  which 
although  it  contains  a  large  percentage  of  iron  is  almost  useless  as  an  ore. 

Rutile  (oxide  of  titanium,  TiO/)  is  used  in  coloring  false  teeth. 

Several  rare  metals  are  used  in  small  amounts  for  making  certain  grades 
of  steel.  The  most  important  of  these  are  tungsten,  molybdenum,  vana- 
dium and  uranium.      Salts  of  these  metals  find  limited  use  in  dyeing. 

Radium,  a  \-ery  rare  metal  with  very  peculiar  properties,  occurs  with 
uranium,  and  is  at  present  used  in  experimental  work. 

Lithium  carbonate  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  medicinal  tablets  and 
mineral  waters.  It  is  prepared  from  certain  rare  minerals  which  in  this 
country  are  found  in  quantity  in  California. 

Monazite,  samarskite  and  a  few  other  minerals  found  in  North  Carolina, 
Norway  and  Brazil  contain  thorium,  cerium,  lanthanum  and  yttrium.  Salts 
prepared  from  them  are  used  in  making  the  mantles  for  Welsbach  and  other 
incandescent  gas  burners. 

Arsenic  occurs  widely  distributed  in  the  world,  but  in  only  a 
ARSENIC     few  places  in  sufficient  quantity  to  be  of  commercial  value. 
Germany,  England,  Canada,  the  United  States  and  Spain  are 
the  producing  countries. 

It  is  obtained  from  arsenopyrite  (arsenical  iron  sulphidej  and  from 
orpiment  and  realgar  (sulphides  of  arsenic). 

It  is  used  in  the  form  of  oxide  of  arsenic  (called  arsenic,  white  arsenic 
or  arsenious  acid)  for  preserving  skins,  for  making  "sheep  dip"  (to  kill 
insects  which  harm  the  sheep),  for  rat  poison,  as  a  mordant  in  dyeing,  in 
making  fine  grades  of  glassware  and  enamels,  and  in  making  various  other 
arsenic  compounds. 

Paris  Green,  one  of  the  most  important  arsenic  salts,  is  used  for  kill- 
ing the  potato  beetle  and  other  insects  injurious  to  vegetation,  and,  to  a 
small  extent,  as  a  pigment. 

Other  compounds  of  arsenic  are  used  as  pigments  and  dyes,  for 
medicinal  purposes  and  in  making  embalming  fluid.  Arsenic  salts  are  used 
in  preparing  certain  of  the  coal-tar  colors. 

Chrome  ores  are  mined  in  Asia  Minor  and  Greece.     Smaller 

CHROME     amounts  come  from  the  province  of    Quebec,  Canada,   New 

Caledonia,  and   California.       There  are   deposits  also  in  the 

Ural    Mountains,   in    Lancaster    County,    Pennsylvania,   in    Maryland    and 

North  Carolina. 


92  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 


Chromite  (oxide  of  chromium  and  iron,  Fe  Cr^O^ )  is  the  only  ore. 
Chromium  is  not  used  in  the  metallic  state,  but  is  chiefly  valuable  for 
its  chemical  compounds,  particularly  the  pigments  chrome  yellow  and 
chrome  green.  Various  salts  of  chrome  are  used  as  dyes  and  mordants, 
giving  a  variety  of  colors.  Chromic  acid  and  bichromate  of  potash  are  used 
in  tanning  soft  kid  leather.  In  the  tanning  industrj',  bichromate  of  potash 
is  often  referred  to  simply  as  chrome. 

Chrome  steel  contains  a  small  percentage  of  chromium.  It  is  extremely 
hard,  being  used  for  burglar-proof  safes,  hard-edged  tools,  etc. 

Barite,  or  barytes,  is  a  heavy  white  mineral  (barium  sulphate, 
BARITE     Ba  SO,)  found  in  Missouri,  Virginia,  North  Carolina  and  Ten- 
nessee, and  mined  also  in  Germany.      It  is  ground  to  a  fine 
powder  and   used   as   a  substitute  or  adulterant  for  white  lead,  and  as  a 
"  filling"  in  paper.  Other  barium  compounds  have  minor  uses  in  many 

industries,  in  which  artificially  prepared  barytes  is  often  a  by-product. 

Strontium  salts  are  prepared  from  strontianite  (strontium  carbonate, 
Sr  COj)  and  celestite  (strontium  sulphate,  Sr  SO^),  minerals  which  are  found 
in  Germany,  Texas  and  New  York.  Strontium  hydrate  (or  barium  hy- 
drate )  is  used  in  sugar  refining  to  assist  the  recovery  of  sugar  from  beet 
molasses.      Strontium  nitrate  is  used  in  making  red  fire. 

Potash  salts  (carnallite,  kainite,  etc.)  are  found  at  Stassfurt, 
POTASH     Germany.      Other  potash    compounds    are    obtained   by  dis- 
solving them  out  of   wood  ashes  and  from  the  burnt  refuse 
from  sugar  beets.      Some  potash  is  also  recovered  in  wool  washing. 

The  compounds  of  potassium  are  very  similar  to  the  salts  of  sodium 
and  'ike  them  are  used  in  fertilizers,  glass-making,  soap-making,  dyeing  and 
a  multitude  of  other  industries. 

Soda  (sodium  carbonate)  is  found  in  small  quantities  in  very  dry 
SODA    regions,    such    as   parts   of   California,    Utah,    Nevada,    Hungary 
and  Egypt. 
Soda  Ash  is  the  raw  commercial  form  in  which  soda  salts  are  usually 
handled.      It  is  a   crude  carbonate  of    soda,   generally  made  from  salt  bv 
treatment  with  sulphuric  acid  and  subsequent  carbonation.      It    is  useful  in 
making    washing    soda,  baking   soda  (bicarbonate),  caustic  soda,  in  glass- 
making  and  many  other  industries. 

The  numerous  salts  of  soda  are  useful  for  so  many  purposes  that  they 
cannot  be  given  in  detail.  The  carbonates  are  used  in  dyeing,  soap-making, 
paper-making  and  other  industries.  Sodium  hyposulphite  is  used  in  pho- 
tography, dyeing,  and  tanning  soft  leather. 

Common  salt  includes  rock  salt,  sea  salt,  and  lake  salt  (halite  or 
SALT  sodium  chloride,  NaCl).  Rock  salt  occurs  in  beds  or  rock 
masses  in  the  earth  and  is  mined  in  lumps,  like  stone  or  coal. 
Large  mines  of  rock  salt  are  located  in  Poland;  at  many  places  in  Germany 
and  Austria;  Cardona,  Spain;  Cheshire,  England;  Louisiana,  Kansas,  and 
many  other  parts  of  the  world.  In  the  Kohat  District,  India,  there  is  a 
deposit  over  a  thousand  feet  in  thickness. 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS  93 


In  this  country,  the  greatest  salt-producing  states  are  Michigan  and  New 
York.  Large  quantities  are  also  obtained  in  Kansas,  Ohio  and  California. 
England  is  the  greatest  exporter  of  salt.  Salt  is  manufactured  in  almost  all 
parts  of  the  world.  Owing  to  its  cheapness  and  wide  distribution  it  is  not 
as  important  an  article  in  international  commerce  as  staples  which  are  more 
costlv  and  less  common. 

When  a  bed  of  salt  exists  at  a  considerable  depth,  it  is  often  found 
more  economical  not  to  work  it  by  ordinary  mining  methods.  In  such 
cases  it  is  usual  to  bore  a  well  a  few  inches  in  diameter  to  the  bed  and  pump 
water  down  the  well.  In  contact  with  the  salt,  the  water  becomes  a  strong 
brine,  which  is  pumped  to  the  surface  and  evaporated. 

Much  of  the  salt  of  commerce  is  obtained  from  saline  water.  Ocean 
water  contains  about  two  and  a  half  per  cent,  of  salt.  At  Turk's  Island 
and  other  places  in  the  West  Indies  there  is  a  large  production  of  salt  from 
ocean  water.  Some  lakes,  such  as  the  Great  Salt  Lake  and  the  Dead  Sea, 
contain  a  larger  percentage  of  salt  than  the  ocean.  Underground  lakes  or 
ri\'ers  from  which  the  water  is  drawn  through  wells,  in  some  localities  yield 
strong  brines. 

The  evaporation  of  saline  water  is  carried  on  in  large  open  tanks  or 
vats  by  the  natural  agency  of  the  sun  and  wind,  or  else  by  artificial  heat  in 
e\aporating  pans.  Salt  seldom  occurs  pure  in  nature,  being  generally 
mixed  with  calcium  sulphate,  calcium  chloride,  magnesium  chloride,  etc. 
The  presence  of  these  other  compounds  causes  it  to  absorb  water  from 
the  atmosphere. 

The  concentrated  liquor  from  which  salt  has  crystallized  usually  con- 
tains bromine  and  iodine  and  is  sometimes  worked  over  for  their  recovery. 
The  most  common  commercial  salt  of  bromine  is  potassium  bromide. 
Bromides  are  used  in  medicines,  in  photography,  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
red  eosin  (coal  tar)  colors. 

Salt  is  one  of  the  most  important  foods  and  is  marketed  in  grains  of 
different  degrees  of  fineness,  such  as  table  salt,  dairy  salt,  etc.  It  is  used 
for  packing  meat  and  curing  fish,  on  account  of  its  preservative  qualities. 
It  is  used  in  immense  quantities  in  the  manufacture  of  various  chemicals, 
such  as  hydrochloric  acid,  soda  ash,  carbonate  of  soda,  bleaching  powder, 
chlorine,  chloride  of  lime,  etc. ,  in  the  refining  of  silver  and  other  metal- 
lurgical and  manufacturing  operations.  Some  of  the  uses  of  salt  are  due  to 
its  property  of  producing  intense  cold  when  mixed  with  ice. 

Soda  niter  (nitrate  of  soda,  Na  NO,)  is  a  very  easily 
SODA  NITER  soluble  mineral  which  occurs  in  immense  beds  in  the  desert 
region  of  Atacama,  in  northern  Chile,  where  rain  does 
not  fall  for  years  at  a  time.  The  deposits  are  found  at  a  distance  of  from 
ten  to  twelve  feet  below  the  surface.  The  crude  material  is  transported 
to  extensive  works  on  the  sea-coast  where  the  niter  is  dissohed  out  with 
water  and  recovered  in  an  almost  pure  state  by  evaporation.  In  the  purifi- 
cation, other  salts  and  iodine  are  separated. 


94  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 


Nitrate  of  soda  is  one  of  the  ehief  sources  of  nitrogen.  It  is  used  in 
making  glass  and  in  the  manufacture  of  nitric  acid,  a  chemical  of  great  im- 
portance, the  salts  of  whicli  are  useful  in  a  multitude  of  ways.  Well  known 
compounds  containing  nitrogen,  often  deri\ed  from  soda  niter,  are:  fer- 
tilizers, saltpeter,  gunpowder,  fireworks,  nitro-glycerine,  dynamite  and  other 
explosives.  Nitrates  occur  in  small  amounts  in  some  caves,  such  as  the 
Mammoth  Cave  of  Kentucky. 

Nitrogen  is  plentiful  in  the  air,  but  is  not  in  a  state  in  which  it  is  readily 
available  by  our  present  manufacturing  processes.  Certain  bacteria  which 
grow  in  enlargements  on  the  roots  of  leguminous  plants  have  the  unusual 
property  of  absorbing  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  making  it  available  as 
plant  food.  The  culture  of  these  bacteria  is  a  very  important  part  of  modern 
soil  fertilizing. 

Borax  (hydrous  sodium  borate,  Na,  B^O,  .loH^O)  is  obtained 

BORAX     by  re-crystallizing  crude  natural  borax  (  "  tincal '"  )  which  occurs 

in  crusts  on  marshes  in  central  Asia  and  in  California,  Nevada 

and  Oregon.      Similar  deposits  occur  in  Argentina,  Chile,  and  other  parts 

of  -South  America.     Most  of  the  borax  used  in  the  United  States  is  made  from 

■  colemanite  (hydrous  calcium  borate,  Ca,  B^Ojj  .5H2O)  a  mineral  mined  in 

southern  California.      Borates  are  also  found  at  Stassfurt,  Germany,  and  in 

other  places.      Borax  and  boracic  acid  are  used  for  the  preparation  of  glazes 

for  pottery  and  tile,  for  the  manufacture  of  optical  glass,  in  the  ])reservation 

of  meat,  and  for  minor  purposes. 

Limestone  is  a  rock  (essentially  calcium  carbonate,  Ca  CO3 ) 
LIMESTONE  found  in  beds  of  great  extent  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 
The  purest  limestones  are  white,  but  many  colors  are  found 
generally  caused  by  the  presence  of  iron  or  bituminous  matter.  In  texture 
limestones  varv  from  loose  to  compact  and  from  massive  to  fine  or  coarse  cry- 
stalline. Manv  limestones  are  composed  almost  entirely  of  fossil  shells. 
Limestone  is  one  of  the  most  important  and  commonly  used  building  stones. 
It  is  employed  also  for  roadmaking,  railroad  ballast,  concrete,  as  flux  in 
smelting,  for  making  soda  and  other  chemical  purposes,  in  glass  making, 
for  preparing  sulphite  pulp  for  paper  making,  etc.  Pennsylvania,  Illinois, 
Ohio,  Indiana,  New  York  and  Missouri  are  the  greatest  producers,  although 
it  is  ijuarried  in  nearly  every  state. 

Lime  is  produced  by  burning,  or  calcining,  limestone  in  kilns.  The 
process  of  calcining  dri\-es  off  carbon  dioxide,  and  leaves  quick  lime,  which 
is  mainly  calcium  oxide  (CaO~).  On  exposure  to  air,  quick  lime  becomes 
slaked  by  the  absorption  of  moisture  and  carbonic  acid.  Air-slaked  lime 
approximates  to  the  composition  CaCOj.Ca  (OH),.  A  solution  of  (juick 
lime  is  used  in  unhairing  skins,  and  in  making  soap  and  candles.  Slaked 
lime  is  used  as  a  fertilizer,  for  purifying  coal  gas,  etc. 

Common  mortar  is  made  by  mixing  air-slaked  lime  and  sand  with  water 
to  form  a  jiaste.  As  the  moisture  dries  out,  the  mortar  "sets"  and  in  the 
course  of  time  it  hardens  bv  the  absorption  of  carbon  dioxide  (CO,)  from 
the  atmosphere.      This  hardening  sometimes  continues  for  a  long  ]ieriod,  or 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS  95 


until  all  the  lime  is  converted  into  calcium  carbonate.  Mortar  is  generally 
strengthened  by  mixing  with  it  cow  hair,  palmetto  or  some  other  fiber. 

Hydraulic  limestones  when  calcined  or  subjected  to  heat  yield  a  lime 
which  will  set  and  harden  under  water.  These  limestones  all  contain  silicious 
and  clayey  matter  and  in  burning  form  certain  silicates  and  alummates  of 
lime.  Hydraulic  cements  are  unlike  common  lime  in  that  they  do  not 
depend  on  drying  for  their  setting,  nor  on  carbonation  for  their  hardening, 
but  combine  chemically  with  a  certain  amount  of  water  and  form  insoluble 
compounds.  Hydraulic  cements  are  widely  used  in  construction  work, 
especially  in  making  concrete,  a  mixture  of  broken  stone  with  a  cement 
mortar.  Hydraulic  cements  are  often  made  from  other  substances  than 
hydraulic  limestone,  such  as  marls,  mixtures  of  chalk  and  clay,  volcanic  tufa 
and  lime,  slag  and  lime,  etc. 

Portland  cement  is  the  most  important  of  the  hydraulic  cements.  It 
is  prepared  from  mixtures  of  limestone,  either  pure  or  silicious,  with  clay. 
The  \'arious  substances  are  powdered  and  mixed  in  certain  definite  propor- 
tions. The  mixture  is  thoroughly  burned  to  a  clinker,  which  is  afterwards 
ground  to  a  fine  powder  for  use. 

Chalk  is  a  peculiar  soft  limestone  resembling  white  clay.  Most  of  it 
comes  from  England. 

Whiting  is  chalk,  ground  fine  and  prepared  by  washing.  (See  Clay 
Washing.)  It  is  also  prepared  from  some  white  clays.  Whiting  is  mixed 
w'ith  linseed  oil,  to  make  putty,  and  is  used  as  an  adulterant  for  other  white 
pigments  in  paints.  Whitewash  is  sometimes  prepared  by  mixing  whiting 
with  water  and  a  little  glue,  and  sometimes  by  mixing  slaked  lime  and  water. 
Whiting  (prepared  chalk  or  putty  powder)  is  also  used  as  a  polishing  powder. 

Marble.  Limestones  suitable  for  polishing  or  for  use  in  ornamental 
work  are  called  marble.  The  term  is  sometimes  restricted  to  the  white 
crj'stalline  varieties. 

Many  kinds  of  marble  are  known  by  the  names  of  the  localities  where 
they  are  obtained.  Carrara  marble  is  the  fine  Italian  statuary  marble.  Ten- 
nessee marble  is  a  kind  extensively  used  in  this  country  for  ornamental  work. 
Many  different  kinds  of  beautiful  marble  are  found  in  Italy.  Vermont  is  the 
greatest  marble-producing  state  in  the  Union.  Georgia,  Tennessee  and 
New  York  produce  large  quantities.  Marble  is  also  mined  in  several  other 
states.  Marble  dust  and  chips  are  used  in  the  generation  of  carbon  dioxide 
gas  ( CO_, )  for  charging  soda  water  and  other  aerated  beverages. 

Mexican  Onyx  is  a  translucent  limestone,  with  beautiful  colors,  found 
in  many  countries  and  used  for  ornamental  purposes. 

Lithographic  limestone  is  a  \ariety  with  a  very  fine  texture,  found  at 
Solenhofen,  Germany,  and  used  in  making  lithographic  plates. 

Marl  is  a  calcareous  clay  generally  containing  the  remains  of  many 
shells  and  marine  animals.  It  is  sometimes  used  in  making  Portland  cement 
and  often  as  a  fertilizer.  The  marl  of  New  Jersey  is  composed  mostly  of 
glauconite  or  greensand  (a  hydrous  silicate  of  iron  and  potassium).  It  is 
frequently  phosphatic  and  is  used  as  a  fertilizer. 


96  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 


"Chloride  of  lime,"  or  bleaching  powder,  is  generally  prepared  by 
slaking  lime  with  water  and  passing  chlorine  gas  over  and  through  it.  It 
is  used  for  bleaching  textiles  and  paper  i)ulp  and  for  disinfecting. 

Acetate  of  lime  is  used  as  a  mordant  in  dyeing. 

Calcium  carbide  is  prepared  by  heating  a  mi.xture  of  chalk  and  coke 
in  an  electric  furnace.  When  treated  with  water  this  substance  liberates 
acetylene  gas,  a  powerful  illuminant. 

Gypsum  (hydrous  calcium  sulphate,  Ca  SO,  .2HjO)  is  a  soft 

GYPSUM     mineral  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world.      In  the  United 

States  it  is  mined  in  Michigan,  Kansas,  New  York,  Ohio  and 

other  states.      A  considerable  quantity  is  imported  from  Canada.      Beds  of 

.salt  are  usually  found  near  gypsum. 

Plaster  is  prepared  by  calcining  gypsum,  a  process  which  consists  in 
heating  it,  thus  driving  oft  some  of  the  water  which  it  contains.  When 
plaster  is  mixed  with  water,  they  combine  again  to  make  gypsum  and  the 
minute  crystals  of  this  substance  in  forming,  interlace  and  cause  the  plaster 
to  ' '  set. ' '  The  purest  calcined  gypsum  is  called  ' '  plaster  of  paris. ' '  Wall 
plaster  is  less  pure,  contains  sand  and  fiber,  and  does  not  set  so  rapidly  as 
plaster  of  paris.  Impure  gypsum  is  used  in  making  land  plaster  and  other 
fertilizers.  Powdered  gypsum  is  used  as  a  "loading"  material  in  paper- 
making. 

Alaba.v'ter  is  a  compact,  pure  white  \ariety  of  gypsum  used  for  orna- 
mental jiurposes. 

Fluorite  (calcium  fluoride,  Ca  F,)   is  used  as  a  flux  in  the 

FLUORITE     reduction  of   some  ores,  in  the   manufacture  of   opalescent 

glass,  ir  the  production  of  hydrofluoric  acid  and  for  minor 

purposes.       It   is  obtained  in   Kentucky,   southern    Illinois,   and    at    some 

places  in  Europe. 

Beds  of  rock  containing  greater  or  less  percentages 
PHOSPHATE  ROCK  of  phosphate  of  lime,  usually  associated  with  car- 
bonate of  lime,  occur  in  various  parts  of  the  world. 
Some  of  these  phosphatic  beds  consist  of  limestone,  carrying  a  small  per- 
centage of  calcium  phosphate,  and  such  are  not  available  as  a  commercial 
source  of  phosphorus;  some  deposits  are  composed  largely  of  bone  and 
other  organic  remains,  and  some  are  of  a  distinctly  coprolitic  nature.  The 
phosphatic  character  of  these  beds  is  traceable  in  most,  if  not  all,  cases  to 
an  animal  origin. 

The  deposits  near  Charleston,  S.  C,  are  distinctly  composed  of  organic 
remains  and  contain  many  shark's  teeth,  bones,  and  the  remains  of  marine 
animals. 

The  phosphate  rock  of  Tennessee  is  essentially  a  limestone  from  which 
much  of  the  calcium  carbonate  has  been  dissolved. 

Other  phosphate  beds  occur  in  Florida,  the  West  Indies,  Canada,  Es- 
tremadura  (Spain),  France,  Germany  and  England. 

In  Canada  deposits  of  limestone  contain  a  crystalline  mineral  called 
apatite  (a  calcium  phosphate^ 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS  gy 

Natural  phosphates  are  used  in  the  preparation  of  fertilizers,  for  which 
purpose  they  are  usually  treated  with  sulphuric  acid  (H^SO,),  which  con- 
verts the  bone  phosphate  (Ca,  (PO^)/)  into  superphosphate  (a  mixture  of 
calcium  sulphate  with  the  acid  phosphate  of  lime,  CaH,  (POJJ,  in  which 
form  it  is  much  more  easily  soluble  in  water,  and  hence  more  available  as 
plant  food.  The  natural  phosphates  are  also  used  as  the  source  of  phos- 
phorus for  the  manufacture  of  matches,  phosphoric  acid  and  various  com- 
pounds, such  as  phosphate  of  soda  used  in  dyeing. 

For  other  fertilizers  see  Guano,  Lime,  Gas  Lime,  Fish,  Nitrate,  Slag, 
etc.  Wastes  such  as  garbage  and  sewage  when  worked  up  by  modern  pro- 
cesses yield  valuable  fertilizers,  with  other  jiroducts. 

Sulphur,  or  brimstone,  occurs  in  a  pure  state  in  various  parts 
SULPHUR  of  the  world.  It  is  found  abundantly  in  the  neighborhood 
of  active  or  extinct  volcanoes,  and  is  frequently  associated 
with  beds  of  gypsum  and  limestone.  It  occurs  impregnating  the  water  of 
sulphur  springs,  and,  in  chemical  combination  with  various  metals,  is  an  im- 
portant constituent  of  the  large  class  of  compounds  called  sulphides,  which 
embrace  many  of  the  important  metallic  ores.  Native  sulphur,  pyrite  and 
the  waste  calcium  sulphide  from  alkali  works  are  the  chief  sources  of  sul- 
phur compounds.  The  island  of  Sicily  is  the  greatest  commercial  source 
of  native  sulphur.  The  mines  there  have  been  worked  for  ma  y  hundreds 
of  years.  Sulphur  is  found  in  Italy,  Japan,  Hawaii  and  other  places.  In 
the  United  States  it  occurs  in  Louisiana,  Nevada,  California  and  Utah. 

In  Sicily  it  is  partly  purified  by  piling  the  rock  in  heaps  and  igniting  it, 
the  heat  produced  by  the  combustion  of  some  of  the  sulphur  melting  the 
rest  which  runs  down  and  is  drawn  off  from  the  bottom  of  the  heap.  Crude 
sulphur  is  distilled  to  make  "flowers  of  sulphur"  and  "roll  brimstone." 

Sulphur  is  commercially  useful  in  vulcanizing  rubber,  for  bleaching,  for 
the  manufacture  of  gunpowder  and  matches,  for  medicinal  purposes,  as  a 
disinfectant,  and  for  the  preparation  of  many  compounds  which  contain 
it.  The  most  important  sulphur  compound  and  the  one  through  which 
most  of  the  others  are  derived  is  sulphuric  acid,  which  is  prepared  from 
sulphur  in  much  the  same  way  as  from  pyrite. 

Sulphurous  acid  is  much  like  sulphuric  and  is  most  used  in  making 
paper  pulp,  in  bleaching  and  disinfecting. 

Some  of  the  well-known  compounds  which  are  derived  from  sulphuric 
acid  are:  blue  vitriol,  copperas  or  green  vitriol,  and  alum.  Sulphuric  acid 
is  used  in  purifying  petroleum,  vegetable  and  animal  oils,  in  the  manufacture 
of  the  aniline  dyes,  and  the  very  numerous  chemical  compounds  embraced 
in  the  groups  called  sulphates  and  sulphites,  the  names  and  uses  of  which 
are  too  numerous  to  specify. 

Bisulphide  of  carbon  is  a  volatile  liquid  used  as  a  solvent  for  rubber, 
sulphur,  phosphorus,  resins  and  oils.  It  is  also  employed  as  an  insecticide, 
especially  in  wheat  elevators. 


98  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 

Quartz  (silica,  Si  Oj )  is  one  of  the  most  common  minerals  in 
QUARTZ  all  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  found  in  rock  masses  (quartzite); 
in  sands  and  sandstones:  also  as  clear,  transparent  crystals 
(rock  crystal).  Varieties  occur  of  many  shades  of  color,  milky,  amethyst, 
rose,  yellow  and  smoky.  Other  non-crystalline  kinds  are  found  in  great 
variety,  such  as  agate,  moss  agate,  ony.\,  sardonyx,  chalcedony,  carnelian, 
chrysoprase,  prase,  heliotrope,  cat's  eye,  tiger's  eye,  jasper,  flint,  chert, 
hornstone,  honestone,  touchstone,  buhrstone,  petrified  or  agatized  wood, 
etc.  In  addition  to  forming  sandstones  and  quartzites,  quartz  occurs  as  a 
constituent  of  many  rocks,  such  as  granite.  Many  varieties  of  quartz  are 
used  in  jewelry  and  for  making  ornamental  articles.  Rhinestones  and  lenses 
are  cut  from  clear  crystal  quartz. 

American  rock  flint  is  pure  quartz  rock  which  is  crushed  and  used 
for  pottery  and  glass  making.      It  is  mined  in  Connecticut  and  Pennsylvania. 

Glass  sand  is  obtained  in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Illinois,  West  \'irginia. 
New  Jersey,  Missouri  and  other  states. 

Quartz  sand  and  ground  quartz  are  used  m  sandpaper,  sandsoap,  polish- 
ing powders  and  sand  blasts.  Sand  is  used  as  a  refractory  lining  in  furnaces. 
Sand  is  also  used  in  making  moulds  for  casting  metals,  for  making  filter 
beds,  for  sanding  railroad  tracks,  for  mixing  in  asphalt  for  paving,  and  in 
cement  and  mortar  for  building. 

Flint  is  found  in  irregular  nodules  in  chalk  or  limestone.  The  supply 
comes  from  England,  France  and  Ireland.  It  is  chiefly  used  in  pottery 
making,  being  ground  to  a  fine  powder,  and  mixed  with  clay  and  feldspar. 
Arrow  points  and  knives  were  made  of  flint  by  primitive  peoples.  Flint 
was  used  with  steel  for  making  fire  before  the  invention  of  matches. 

Sandstone  is  a  sedimentary  rock  composed  of  grains  of  quartz 
cemented  together  in  a  coherent  mass.  The  cementing  material  is  some- 
times silicious  when  it  forms  a  hard  and  durable  rock.  Sandstones  occur  in 
many  shades  of  white,  yellow,  red  and  brown.  The)-  are  found  both  loose 
and  compact,  and  fine  and  coarse  grained.  They  are  used  for  millstcnes 
and  grindstones,  for  building,  road  making,  railroad  ballast,  concrete,  etc. 
Some  sandstones  are  crushed  to  make  glass  sand. 

Pennsylvania,  Ohio  and  New  York  are  the  greatest  producers  of  sand- 
stone in  this  country,  but  it  is  quarried  in  almost  all  the  states.  Pennsylvania 
and  New  York  produce  a  \ariety  called  bluestone  or  flagstone,  used  for 
paving.  Buhrstone  is  used  for  millstones.  Honestones,  oilstones,  whet- 
stones and  other  sharpening  stones  are  mostly  made  of  sandstone.  Arkansas 
(novaculite),  Michigan,  Indiana,  New  Hampshire  and  Vermont  produce 
most  of  these  articles. 

Glass  is  made  by  fusing  a  mixture  of  silica  (glass  sand),  alkali 

GLASS      (generally  soda  ash),  and  lime.      This  mixture  makes  lime  glass. 

In  lead  glass  (flint  glass),  lead  oxide  (minium)  is  used  in  place 

of  the  lime.      Sodium  sulphate  and  potash  are  sometimes  used  instead  of 

soda  ash,  and  salts  of  other  metals  instead  of  the  lime  or  lead  oxide.      Lead 

glass  is  somewhat  softer  and  more  costly  than  lime  glass,  but  is  generally 


MINERAL   PRODUCTS  gg 


clearer  and  more  brilliant.  It  is  used  for  fine  grades  of  glassware,  particularly 
for  cut  glass.  Artificial  gems  (strass)  contain  a  very  large  percentage  of 
lead.  Small  amounts  of  iron  in  the  materials  used,  give  a  green  color  to 
glass.  This  is  usually  corrected  by  adding  manganese  dioxide  to  the  mix- 
ture. Colored  glass  is  made  by  adding  salts  of  iron,  copper,  cobalt,  or 
other  metals. 

The  mixture  of  powdered  materials  called  ' '  glass  batch  "  or  "  frit ' '  is 
melted  in  a  clay  pot  or  tank  in  a  furnace.  Most  articles  of  glass  are  blown 
by  means  of  an  iron  tube  about  five  feet  long.  A  mass  of  molten  glass 
( ' '  metal ' '  )  taken  from  the  melting  pot  on  the  end  of  the  tube,  is  expanded 
by  blowing  and  shaped  while  hot  into  almost  any  desired  form.  The  shap- 
ing is  often  done  by  blowing  in  moulds  of  clay  or  iron.  Window  glass 
(cylinder  or  sheet  glass)  is  blown  into  a  large  bulb  which  is  rolled  to  cylin- 
drical form  and  then  cut  open  and  flattened  out.  For  crown  glass  a  bulb  is 
blown,  opened  at  the  end  and  extended  into  a  sheet  by  rapid  rotation. 
Cheap  glassware  is  blown  by  machinery. 

Many  articles  of  glass  are  not  blown,  but  pressed  in  moulds,  and  others 
are  made  by  a  combination  of  blowing  and  pressing.  Pressed  glass  is  often 
made  to  imitate  cut  glass. 

Plate  glass  is  made  by  pouring  the  molten  glass  on  a  smooth  iron  table 
over  which  a  roller  passes  making  the  glass  of  an  even  thickness.  Later  it 
is  ground  flat  and  polished  with  sand  and  rouge. 

All  glass  must  be  annealed  to  prevent  brittleness.  This  is  done  b\-  slow 
and  equal  cooling  either  in  a  kiln  where  the  process  takes  several  days  or  in 
an  annealing  lehr  or  oven  where  the  glass  passes  on  travelling  bands  in  a 
few  hours,  through  a  gradually  diminishing  temperature. 

Cut  glass  is  produced  by  pressing  the  article  against  a  revolving  grind- 
stone and  polishing  on  a  wheel  fed  with  emery  and  rouge.  Glass  is  orna- 
mented in  other  ways  by  staining  (painting)  and  re-heating,  by  engraving 
with  a  small  revolving  wheel,  and  by  etching  with  hydrofluoric  acid. 

Glass  is  used  for  a  great  variety  of  purposes,  among  the  most  important 
of  which  are  window  glass,  mirrors,  bottles,  fruit  jars,  lamps,  chimneys, 
globes,  incandescent  lamps,  tumblers,  dishes,  lenses,  tiling,  etc.  For  sky- 
lights and  places  exposed  to  danger  from  fire,  glass  is  made  enclosing  a 
network  of  wire. 

Belgium,  Austria,  Germany,  France,  and  the  United  States  are  the 
leading  manufacturers  of  glass.  In  this  country  Pennsylvania,  Indiana, 
New  Jersey,  Ohio,  Illinois,  New  York,  West  Virginia  and  Missouri  are  the 
greatest  glass-making  states.  The  abundance  of  natural  gas  in  certain  sec- 
tions, giving  a  cheap  and  desirable  fuel,  has  greatly  influenced  the  location 
of  glass  factories. 

Opal  for  gems  is  found  in  Australia,  Mexico  and  Hungary.      A 
OPAL     few  opals  have  been  found  in  Idaho.     Opals  have  almost  the  same 
composition  as  quartz. 


lOO  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 

Infusorial  earth  (diatomaceous  earth  or  tripoli)  is  formed  of  the 
silicious  shells  of  a  multitude  of  microscopic  organisms.  It  has  essentially 
the  same  composition  as  opal.  It  is  a  light,  porous,  clay-like  material  found 
in  Tripoli,  Tuscany,  \'irginia,  California,  and  many  other  localities.  It  is 
used  for  making  polishing  powders  (electro-silicon),  scouring  soap,  packing 
around  boilers  and  steam  pipes,  as  a  base  for  fireproof  cement,  plaster  and 
brick.  It  has  been  employed  as  an  absorbent  of  nitro-glycerine  in  the 
manufacture  of  dynamite,  but  for  this  purpose  is  replaced  by  wood  pulp. 

In  addition  to  the  diamond,  sapphire,  ruby,  opal  and  the  many 
GEMS  varieties  of  quartz  used  for  gems,  there  are  other  hard  minerals, 
mostly  transparent,  used  in  jewelry.  Among  these  the  most 
important  are  topaz,  emerald,  aquamarine,  beryl,  tourmaline,  olivine,  chry- 
solite, spinel,  moonstone  and  turquois.  In  the  island  of  Ceylon,  precious 
stones  of  many  varieties  are  found  in  gravel.  In  this  country,  beryl  and 
amethyst  are  found  in  North  Carolina  and  Connecticut,  turquoise  in  New 
Mexico,  Arizona,  Nevada  and  California,  sapphire  in  Montana,  tourmaline 
in  California  and  Maine,  chrysoprase  and  kunzite  in  California,  and  garnet 
in  Arizona,  New  Mexico  and  North  Carolina. 

Garnet  is  mined  in  North  Carolina,  Pennsylvania,  New  Yorkand  Connec- 
ticut in  opaque  masses  unfit  for  gems.      It  is  a  trifle  less  hard  than  quartz  and 
is  an  important  abrasive  used  for  making  wheels,  paper  and  polishing  powder. 
Mica  is  a  common  mineral  which  occurs  as  a  constituent  of  granite. 
MICA     It  splits  readily  into  very  thin  sheets  and  is  of  value  commercially 
only  when  it  occurs  in  sheets  with  an  area  of  at  least  several  square 
inches.     India  is  the  greatest  producer  of  mica.     There  are  important  deposits 
in  Canada,  North  Carolina,  South   Dakota   and   Virginia.      Two   important 
varieties  are  found,  viz.,  clean  transparent  mica  (muscovite)  and  opaque  or 
dark  colored  mica  (biotite  or  phlogopite).      For  panels  in  stove  doors,  and 
chimneys   of    incandescent  gas   lamps   only  the  transparent   kind  is  used. 
Sheet  mica  is  also  employed  in  electrical  work  for  insulating.      The  scrap 
mica  and  trimmings  from  sheets  are  ground  up  for  use  in  lubricating  heavy 
machinery,  and  for  making  insulators  and  pipe  covering.      Ground  mica  is 
also  used  for  giving  a  spangled  or  frosted  effect  to  wall  paper. 

Isinglass  is  not  mica,  but  a  pure  sheet  gelatine  prepared  chiefly  from 
the  swimming  bladders  of  fish.      (See  Isinglass.  ) 

Building  stones  are  generally  quarried  in  the  neigh- 
BUILDING  STONES     borhood  where  they  are  used,  and  only  in  special 
cases  enter  into  general  commerce.      They  are  used 
for  construction  of  walls,  ornamental  work,  monuments,  foundations,  pave- 
ments (in  slabs  and  paving  blocks),  curbstones,  flagstones,  etc.      Exception- 
ally  beautiful    marbles  and   granites    are   shipped    to    a    distance    for   the 
construction  of  handsome  buildings,  monuments,  or  interior  decorations. 
(See  also  Limestone,  Marble,  Sandstone,  Slate,  etc. ) 
Stone  of  the  same  general  nature,  in  smaller,  irregular  pieces,  is  used 
in  the  form  of  rubble  and  crushed  stone  for  roadmaking,  concrete  and  rail- 
road ballast. 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS  jqi 


Granite  is  a  name  applied  commercially  to  almost  all  igneous 
GRANITE  rocks.  Typical  granite  is  a  mixture  of  interlocking  grains  of 
quartz,  feldspar  and  mica.  In  gneiss,  the  same  minerals  are 
arranged  in  layers.  In  syenite,  hornblende  takes  the  place  of  the  mica  of 
granite.  Quartz-porphyry,  andesite,  mica  schist,  diabase,  diorite,  basalt, 
trap,  and  gabbro  are  all  generally  included  in  the  class  of  granites.  The 
latter  of  these  rocks  are  chiefly  used  in  the  form  of  crushed  stone  for  paving. 
In  texture,  granites  vary  from  extremely  fine  to  very  coarse  grained, 
and  in  color  are  white  or  grayish,  red,  yellow,  brown  or  green,  depending 
generally  on  the  color  of  the  feldspar.  In  quarrying,  blocks  are  loosened 
by  taking  advantage  of  natural  joints  or  seams  and  by  following  certain 
directions  along  which  the  rock  splits  easiest.  Granite  is  a  very  hard, 
strong,  and  durable  rock,  susceptible  of  a  high  polish  and  much  used  for 
building  construction  and  ornamental  work.  In  this  country  the  states  pro- 
ducing the  most  granite  are  Massachusetts,  Maine,  Vermont  and  New 
Hampshire. 

The  hydrocarbon  group  embraces  coal,  asphaltum, 
HYDROCARBONS  petroleum  and  natural  gas.  These  have  all  resulted 
from  the  decomposition  of  organic  matter  in  the 
earth.  Vegetable  matter  has  been  the  most  important  factor  in  their  for- 
mation, fossil  plants  being  a  prominent  feature  of  many  coal  deposits.  In 
some  cases,  however,  such  as  certain  petroleums  and  asphalts,  it  is  highly 
probable  that  they  have  been  derived,  in  part  at  least,  from  marine  or  other 
animal  remains. 

Porous  rocks,  such  as  sandstones,  limestones  and  shales,  not  infre- 
quently contain  small  percentages  of  bituminous  matter.  The  coloring 
matter  of  most  black  marble  is  of  this  nature,  and  was  probably  derived 
from  the  animals,  the  shells  of  which  furnish  the  lime  of  which  the  rock  is 
composed. 

The  form  in  which  these  carbon  compounds  now  occur  depends  on  the 
conditions  under  which  they  were  deposited,  and  the  influence  of  time,  heat, 
pressure  of  superincumbent  rocks  and  other  agencies  to  which  they  have 
since  been  subjected. 

Coal  is  the  fuel  upon  which  modern  manufactures  are  abso- 
COAL  lutely  dependent.  It  is  in  general  the  result  of  the  gradual  change 
which  has  taken  place  during  past  ages  in  organic  deposits, 
chiefly  vegetable,  and  its  form  and  composition  depend  upon  the  extent  to 
which  this  change  has  gone  on.  Thus  it  passes  from  forms,  such  as  peat 
and  lignite,  which  still  retain  the  structure  of  the  vegetable  matter,  through 
those  with  less  of  the  volatile  or  bituminous  ingredients  to  anthracite,  and, 
further,  to  kinds  which  approach  graphite.  Varieties  are  found  inter- 
mediate between  all  the  various  important  types. 

The  most  important  coal-producing  states  are  Pennsylvania,  Ohio, 
West  Virginia,  Alabama,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Colorado,  Kansas,  Kentucky  and 
Maryland.  Deposits  are  worked  to  some  extent  in  most  of  the  states  and 
territories. 


I02  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 

There  are  important  deposits  of  coal  in  Wales  (some  of  which  is  anthra- 
cite), in  England,  Germany,  Austria,  Russia  and  Australia.  Other  deposits, 
many  of  which  are  mined  and  which  may  be  of  greater  future  importance, 
occur  in  Mexico,  South  America,  South  Africa,  India,  China,  Japan  and  the 
Philippines. 

Peat  or  turf  is  a  transition  state  between  unaltered  vegetable  debris 
and  brown  coal.  It  is  formed  in  bogs  and  swamps  by  the  partial  alteration 
of  leaves,  moss,  wood,  roots,  etc. ,  in  masses  out  of  contact  with  the  atmos- 
phere. Beds  of  peat  are  of  comparatively  recent  origin  and  contain  more 
or  less  unaltered  vegetable  fiber.  This  is  sometimes  extracted  and  made 
into  mats  and  packing  material.  Peat  is  sometimes  made  into  coke  and 
the  gases  derived  from  it  in  coking  yield  a  variety  of  products.  Peat  is  a 
common  fuel  in  Holland,  Ireland  and  Russia.  Muck  from  peat  beds  is 
sometimes  used  as  a  fertilizer. 

Brown  Coal  is  a  more  compact  variety,  usually  brownish-black  in 
color.  It  contains  considerable  water  and  20  per  cent,  or  more  of  oxygen. 
Lignite  is  a  brown  coal  which  retains  the  structure  of  the  original  wood  from 
which  it  was  formed.  Brown  coal  and  lignite  are  mined  in  some  parts  of 
Germany  and  Austria,  and  in  other  countries. 

Bituminous  Coal,  or  common  soft  coal,  generally  contains  from  5  to 
15  per  cent,  of  oxygen  and  4  to  7  per  cent,  of  hydrogen.  There  are  several 
types  of  bituminous  coal,  the  most  important  of  which  are: 

Caking  or  Coking  Coal,  which  becomes  pasty  or  semi-viscid  in  the  fire 
and  loses  its  volatile  gases  before  the  combustion  of  its  fixed  carbon. 

Non-Coking  Coal  is  similar  in  appearance  and  composition  to  coking 
coal,  but  burns  freely,  without  softening,  or  any  appearance  of  fusion. 

Cannel  Coal  (parrot  coal,  horn  coal)  is  a  compact  bituminous  coal 
which  yields  40  per  cent,  to  60  per  cent,  of  volatile  matter.  It  is  used  in 
gas-making. 

Cherry  or  soft  coal,  splint  or  hard  coal,  free-burning,  binding,  block, 
gas  and  steam  coals  are  names  applied  to  varieties  of  bituminous  coal. 

Some  kinds  of  coal  are  used  for  special  purposes  for  which  it  has  been 
found  that  they  are  best  adapted,  such  as  coke-making,  steam -raising,  gas- 
making,  smelting,  etc. 

Anthracite  Coal  is  a  hard  coal  containing  a  high  percentage  of  carbon 
and  a  low  percentage  of  volatile  matter.  Semi-anthracites  are  a  stage 
between  bituminous  and  true  anthracite  coal. 

In  the  United  States,  Pennsylvania  produces  almost  all  the  anthracite 
and  leads  in  the  quantity  and  value  of  bituminous  coal,  the  output  of  this 
alone  being  three  times  that  of  Illinois,  the  state  which  stands  next  in  im- 
portance. The  value  of  the  anthracite  coal  produced  annually  in  Pennsyl- 
vania is  almost  equal  to  that  of  all  the  gold  produced  in  a  year  in  the  United 
States. 

In  the  mining  of  coal  and  its  preparation  for  market  by  breaking  to 
various  sizes  (known  in  this  country  as  steamboat,  broken,  heater,  egg, 
stove,  chestnut,  pea,  buckwheat  and  rice),. there  is  produced  a  great  deal  of 


I 


t 


1 
I 

I 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS  103 


fine  coal  dust,  slack  or  culm.  This  used  to  be  piled  up  in  great  heaps  near 
the  mines  and  was  considered  valueless.  Considerable  of  it  is  now  being 
used  in  firing  boilers,  and  is  burned  in  specially  constructed  grates.  It  is 
also  used  in  making  coke.  Much  coal  is  separated  from  pyrite,  clay,  slate 
and  coal  dust  by  washing,  washeries  being  often  connected  with  the  breakers. 

Coke  is  a  fuel  prepared  from  coking  coal  by  partial  combustion  in 
ovens.  The  heat  drives  off  the  volatile  matter  and  the  sulphur  which  is  often 
contained  in  the  coal.  Coke  is  of  great  use  in  metallurgy,  particularly  in 
iron  smelting,  because  of  its  porosity,  its  resistance  to  crushing  and  its  com- 
parative freedom  from  sulphur. 

When  coke  is  made  in  specially  constructed  by-product  ovens,  some  of 
the  gases  which  are  driven  o{{  are  burned  under  the  ovens  to  aid  in  the 
coking,  and  ammonia  and  coal  tar  are  recovered.  In  many  places  in  this 
country  these  valuable  by-products  are  allowed  to  go  to  waste. 

Coal  gas  or  illuminating  gas  is  produced  by  the  distillation  of  coal  in 
retorts.  The  gases  which  come  off  are  purified  by  passing  through  water 
which  dissolves  the  ammonia  which  they  contain,  and  then  through  slaked 
lime  which  absorbs  sulphur,  cyanogen  and  carbon  dio.xide.  After  several 
re-burnings  the  lime  contains  considerable  calcium  sulphate  and  is  sold  as 
gas  lime  for  fertilizer. 

Water  gas  is  made  by  passing  steam  over  a  bed  of  red  hot  coke.  It 
is  used  for  fuel.  For  illuminating,  it  needs  to  be  enriched,  as  does  also  some 
coal  gas,  by  mixture  with  benzenes  or  other  volatile  products. 

The  thick,  viscous  coal  tar  is  distilled  and  its  products  re-distilled,  and 
treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  caustic  alkalis  and  other  chemicals.  They  yield 
a  great  variety  of  useful  articles,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  accompanying 
diagram.  There  are  thousands  of  compounds  from  coal  tar,  a  list  of  which 
would  simply  be  an  enumeration  of  unfamiliar  names.  The  dyes  alone 
number  several  hundreds  and  are  known  as  anilines,  anthracenes,  alizarines, 
eosine,  etc. ,  and  are  of  all  colors  and  shades.  This  table  simply  gives 
general  groups  of  substances  with  their  uses.  (Ammonia  is  also  obtained 
from  many  other  sources. ) 

(See  also  Wood  Distillation.) 


I04 


COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 


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MINERAL  PRODUCTS  105 


Petroleum  is  a  liquid  bituminous  substance  produced  by 
PETROLEUM  the  decomposition  of  \egetable  and  animal  matter  in  the 
earth.  It  \aries  from  a  thin  transparent  oil  to  a  thick 
viscous  liquid.  Petroleum  is  found  in  enormous  quantities  saturating  beds 
of  sandstone,  conglomerate,  shale,  or  other  porous  rocks.  Brine  is  almost 
invariably  found  near  petroleum,  and  natural  gas  is  frequently  obser\ed. 
Most  of  the  petroleum  of  commerce  comes  from  the  region  of  Ohio,  West 
Virginia  and  western  Pennsyhania,  and  from  Baku,  on  the  Caspian  Sea.  It 
is  produced  in  Te.xas,  Indiana,  California,  Colorado,  Canada,  and  in  Galicia, 
Sumatra,  Java,  Upper  Burma,  Roumania,  Japan  and  Peru.  The  United  States 
is  the  greatest  producer  of  illuminating  oils,  the  yield  from  the  crude  oil  aver- 
aging 75  per  cent. ,  while  the  Russian  crude  oil  yields  only  about  35  per  cent. 
of  illuminating  oil.  The  Russian  crude  oil  and  the  Texas  crude  oil  are  particu- 
larly useful  as  fuel  oils.     On  distillation  the  Russian  oil  yields  much  napthaline. 

Petroleum  is  obtained  from  wells  a  few  inches  in  diameter,  sunk  through 
the  earth  to  the  porous  strata  where  the  oil  occurs.  The  wells  vary  in 
depth  from  a  couple  of  hundred  feet  to  as  much  as  three  or  four  thousand 
feet  and  are  bored  by  means  of  long  heavy  drills.  Derricks  built  over  the 
wells  support  the  drilling  tools.  The  machinery  is  operated  by  steam 
engines  which  raise  the  drills  a  few  inches  and  drop  them,  their  sharp  chisel- 
like ends  and  heavy  weight  causing  them  to  drive  a  hole  slowly  through 
very  hard  rocks.  The  wells  are  usually  lined  for  at  least  a  part  of  their 
depth  with  cast  iron  pipe.  Wells  for  natural  gas  are  bored  in  the  same  way. 
Wells  which  do  not  flow  freely  are  often  made  to  yield  large  quantities  of 
oil  by  exploding  nitro-glycerine  in  them.     This  is  called  ' '  shooting  ' '  a  well. 

The  crude  oil  is  usually  transported  on  land,  by  pumping  through  pipe 
lines.  The  pipes  run  for  hundreds  of  miles  from  the  wells  to  refineries 
usually  located  on  the  sea  coast.  From  the  coast,  oil  is  shipped  in  tank 
steamers  to  other  countries.  Oils  are  shipped  by  rail  in  tank  cars.  Enor- 
mous quantities  of  refined  oil  are  handled  in  this  country  and  exported  to 
all  parts  of  the  world  in  large  square  tin  cans.  Many  foreign  countries  levy 
a  heavy  import  dutv  on  refined  petroleum,  but  admit  crude  oil  free. 

Crude  petroleum  is  refined  for  use  by  heating  it  in  large  containers.  The 
vapors  which  distill  off  are  condensed  by  cooling.  In  this  way  it  is  separated 
into  various  "  fractions,"  some  of  them  light  and  easily  volatile,  like  gasoline, 
naptha  and  benzine;  some  a  little  heavier  and  less  volatile,  such  as  kerosene, 
headlight,  and  other  illuminating  oils;  and  some  still  hea\'ier  oils  used  for 
lubricating.  The  fractions  are  further  purified  by  treatment  with  sulphuric 
acid  and  caustic  soda  and  by  re-distillation.  The  many  grades  of  refined 
products  are  found  useful  for  various  purposes,  such  as  fuel,  illuminating  oil, 
lubricating  oils,  oils  for  gas  making,  solvents  for  rubber,  resins,  etc.,  tur- 
pentine substitute,  volatile  oil  for  ice  making,  floor  oil,  and  for  a  large 
number  of  other  uses. 

Vaseline,  petrolatum,  or  other  semi-solid  greases  are  extracted  from 
illuminating  oils  during  the  refining  process.  Vaseline  is  used  in  ointments 
and  for  lubricating. 


io6  COMMERCIAL  RAW  MATERIALS 


Parafflne  wax  is  separated  in  the  piirihcation  of  the  lubricating  oils. 
Paraftine  is  similar  in  appearance  and  in  many  of  its  properties  to  bleached 
beeswax.  It  is  used  for  waxing  floors,  waxing  paper,  making  candles  and 
as  a  substitute  or  adulterant  for  other  waxes.  Ozocerite  (native  parafifine) 
is  found  in  Galicia  and  is  used  for  the  same  purposes,  also  for  insulating, 
and  waterproofing  electric  wires. 

Lubricating  oils  for  all  sorts  of  machinery  are  prepared  by  mixtures  of 
petroleum  products  with  vegetable  oils.  The  residuum  after  distillation  is  a 
thick  substance  similar  to  asphalt  in  its  nature.  It  is  mixed  with  asphalt  for 
paving,  or  with  coal  dust  is  made  into  briquettes  for  fuel.  When  the  dis- 
tillation is  further  continued,  petroleum  coke  results.  Electric  light  carbons 
are  made  of  petroleum  coke. 

Asphaltum  (mineral  pitch  )  is  a  bituminous  mineral  sub- 
ASPHALTUM     stance  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  organic  matter.      It 
varies    in    consistency   from    liquid    or   viscous    varieties 
(called  mineral  tar  or  maltha)  to  hard,  brittle,  solid  asphaltums. 

Petroleums  change  to  asphaltum  by  oxygenation  and  the  loss  of  their 
volatile  oils.  Asphaltum  is  found  in  small  quantities  in  a  state  of  high 
purity,  and  occurs  in  larger  deposits  mixed  with  earthy  matter  or  impreg- 
nating beds  of  porous  materials,  such  as  clays,  shales,  sandstones  and  lime- 
stones.     These  latter  varieties  are  called  rock  asphalts. 

The  most  important  commercial  source  is  the  Pitch  Lake  on  the  Island 
of  Trinidad,  which  furnishes  an  asphalt  containing  about  fifty-five  per  cent, 
of  bitumen,  with  thirty-five  per  cent,  of  earthy  matter.  Asphalt  is  also 
found  in  \'enezuela  and  in  several  of  the  West  India  islands,  notably  Bar- 
bados and  Cuba. 

In  the  L'nited  States,  pure  varieties  (ozocerite,  gilsonite  and  uintahite) 
are  produced  in  Utah  and  California,  and  rock  asphalts  are  mined  in  con- 
siderable quantity  in  California  and  to  a  much  less  extent  in  Kentucky  and 
Indian  Territory.  In  France  and  Switzerland  there  are  large  beds  of  as- 
phaltic  limestones  which  are  used  for  paving.  There  are  similar  deposits 
in  Germany,  Italy  and  Spain. 

The  most  important  use  of  asphalt  is  as  a  paving  material.  Asphalt 
pavements  are  made  of  broken  and  pulverized  rock  and  sand  held  together 
by  eight  to  ten  per  cent,  of  asphaltic  cement  composed  of  a  mixture  of 
asphaltum  and  petroleum  residuum.  Asphalt  is  used  as  a  cement  between 
wooden  paving  blocks.  When  mixed  with  broken  stone  and  sand  it  is  com- 
pressed into  asphalt  paving  blocks.  Pure  varieties  are  used  in  making 
black  varnish  for  metals  and  leathers,  for  insulating,  for  water-proofing  and 
for  cement  in  construction  work. 

Amber  is  frequently  classed  as  a   mineral  among  the  hydro- 

AMBER     carbons.      It  is  a  hard  fossil  resin,  found  along  the  shore  of  the 

Baltic    Sea.      Small    quantities    come   from    Sicily   and    other 

localities.      It  is  carved  into  fancy  articles,  such  as  mouthpieces  for  pipes 

and   cigar  holders,  beads  and  the  like.      The  shavings  and  small  opaque 

pieces  are  used  in  making  fine  varnish. 


MINERAL   PRODUCTS  107 


Graphite  (plumbago  or  black  leadj  is  a  purer  form  of  car- 
GRAPHITE     bon  than  coal.      It  has  essentially  the  same  composition  as 

the  diamond.  It  is  called  black  lead  because,  like  the  metal 
lead,  it  will  leave  a  mark  on  paper.  The  principal  sources  of  supply  are 
Ceylon,  New  York  and  Bohemia.  It  is  also  found  in  Canada,  Mexico 
and  some  other  localities. 

The  best  or  crystalline  grades  of  graphite  are  used  for  making  crucibles, 
lead  pencils,  and  lubricants  for  chains  and  heavy  machinery.  The  poorer 
grades  are  employed  for  stove  polish,  foundry  facings,  paint,  etc.  Graphite 
crucibles  are  used  for  melting  precious  metals  and  other  substances  that  must 
be  exposed  to  a  high  heat.  They  are  made  by  moulding  and  baking  a 
mixture  of  graphite  and  selected  clay. 

The  lead  for  pencils  is  prepared  by  grinding  graphite,  separating  the 
finest  powders,  generally  by  floating  them  away  in  water  and  allowing  them 
to  subside.  The  very  finest  powder  is  used  for  the  high  grade  pencils. 
Clay  is  also  prepared  by  floating  and  is  mixed  and  ground  with  the  graphite 
in  greater  or  less  proportion,  the  hardest  pencils  containing  the  most  clay. 
After  the  mass  is  moulded  in  the  shape  of  leads,  it  is  baked  in  a  kiln  and 
later  glued  between  strips  of  cedar  which  are  shaped  as  desired. 

Foundry  facings  are  put  on  the  surface  of  sand  moulds  to  prevent  the 
metal  when  cast  from  adhering  to  the  sand. 

Graphite  is  also  used  in  glazing  powder  grains  and  shot.      Graphite 
made  artificially  at  Niagara  Falls,  by  an  electric  process  from  anthracite  coal 
or  coke,  is  used  for  making  electrodes,  carbons,  paint  and  foundry  facings. 
Diamonds  are  found  principally  in  South  Africa.      A  few 
DIAMONDS     are  obtained   in   Brazil  and  smaller  numbers  in  India  and 
some  other  parts  of  the  world.      The  diamond  is  the  hardest 
known  substance  and  is  composed  of  pure  crystallized  carbon  (C),  an  ele- 
ment found  in  almost  as  pure  a  state,  in  the  form  of  graphite  and  less  pure 
as  coal.      Carbon  is  a  necessary  ingredient  of  all  li\ing  organisms. 

Clear,  flawless  diamonds  are  valued  as  gems  on  account  of  their  rarity, 
hardness  and  high  refractive  power.  No  other  substance  being  so  hard, 
diamonds  are  cut  and  polished  by  the  use  of  diamond  dust.  Amsterdam 
and  Antwerp  are  the  headquarters  of  the  diamond-cutting  industry. 

Some  diamonds  are  black  in  color  and  many  are  small,  not  transparent, 
or  of  such  poor  quality  that  they  are  useless  as  gems.  These  are  used  for 
polishing  or  for  cutting  hard  substances.  The  black  ones  (carbonado  or 
bort)  are  a  trifle  harder  than  transparent  diamonds  and  are  used  in  diamond 
drills.  For  this  purpose  they  are  mounted  on  the  end  or  edge  of  a  metal 
tube  two  or  three  inches  in  diameter.  This  is  revolved  by  machinery  and 
pressing  on  rocks  below  the  earth's  surface  rapidly  grinds  or  drills  a  hole. 
The  cores  of  rock  obtained  from  such  wells  give  valuable  information  as  to 
the  nature  of  rocks  and  mineral  deposits  below  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
Most  wells  for  oil,  water  or  brine  are  driven  as  described  under  petrok-um. 


io8  COMMERCIAL   RAW   MATERIALS 

Carborundum  is  an  artificial  abrasive  material  made  at 
CARBORUNDUM  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y.,  by  fusing  a  mixture  of  coke, 
sawdust  and  sand  in  an  electric  furnace.  Chemically 
it  is  carbide  of  silicon  (Si  C).  Its  hardness  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other 
known  substance  except  the  diamond.  Like  other  abrasives  it  is  used  in 
the  form  of  powders  of  different  degrees  of  fineness  and  for  making  grinding 
wheels  and  sharpening  stones. 

Pumice  is  a  volcanic  rock,  softer  than  most  other  abrasives. 
PUMICE     It  is  used  in  lump  and  in  powder  for  polishing  metals,  stone, 
wood  and  varnish.      Almost  all  of  the  pumice  used  comes  from 
Lipari,  an  island  off  the  north  coast  of  Sicily. 

Rotten    stone   is    prepared  from   decomposed   rocks. 
ROTTEN  STONE     It  is  a  fine  smooth   powder,    not  of    great  hardness. 
It    is    much    used    for  rubbing  down    and    polishing 
varnished  surfaces. 

For  other  abrasives  see  Quartz,  Corundum,  Garnet,  Rouge,  Infusorial 
Earth  and  Puttv  Powder. 


•^         •^Z*         •^ 


CONTENTS 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Pack. 

The  Cotton  Plant  and  its  Products Frontispiece 

Threshing  Wheat,  Minnesota 2 

Picking  Coffee,  Brazil 10 

Cocoanut  Trees,  Jamaica 22 

Picking  Cotton,  Arkansas 26 

Reeling  Silk,  Japan 74 

Hydraulic  Gold  Mining,  New  Zealand 83 

LIST    OF    DIAGRAMS. 

Page. 

Corn  Plant 5 

Cocoanut  Palm 24 

Cotton  Plant 25 

Pine  Tree,  yellow 32 

Wood  Distillation 47 

Coal  Distillation 104 

MAPS. 

Page. 

Ash opposite  42 

Banana "  9 

Beech "  40 

Birch,  black "  40 

Cacao "  12 

Cattle  Hides "  60 

Cherry "  42 

Chestnut "  40 

Coal "  102 

Cocoanut "  23 

Coffee "  II 

Cork "  42 

Corn,  Indian "  4 

Cotton "  25 

Cypress,  bald "  32 

Ebony "  32 

Elm,  white "  42 

Eucalyptus "  34 

Fir,  Douglas "  32 

Flax "  20 

Goat  and  Kid  Skins "  66 

Gold "  82 

Hemlock "  32 

Hemp,  Sisal,  Manila "  18 

Hickory "  42 

Hides,  Cattle "  60 

Iron "  78 

Jacaranda "  40 


CONTENTS— Continued 


Jute  .  .  . 
Mahogany 
Maize  .  .   . 


Maple-sugar 

Oak,  white,  Old  World 
Oak,  red,  cork    .... 

Petroleum 

Pine,  white,  yellow    .    . 
Rice 


Rosewood 
Rubber  .  . 
Sheep .  .  . 
Silk  .... 


Silver 

Spruce,  white,  black,  Norway,  common 

Sugar,  cane,  beet 

Sycamore 

Tea 

Teak 

Walnut 

Wheat 

Wool 


Page. 

apposite  20 

42 

4 

42 

40 

42 
104 

32 

6 

40 

5" 
64 
72 
S4 
34 

8 
42 
12 
34 
42 

I 

64 


INDEX  TO  SUBJECTS 


PAGE 

Abaca 17 

Abalone 72 

Abrasives loS,  107,  51 

Acetates 47,  80,  81,  96 

Acetone 47 

Acetylene 9^ 

Acid 56,  65,  88 

Acid,  acetic 47 

Acid,  benzoic 104 

Acid,  boracic 94 

Acid,  carbolic 104 

Acid,  chromic 92,61,76 

Acid,  cresylic 104 

Acid,  hydrochloric 95.  60 

Acid,  hydrofluoric 9^,  99 

Acid,  nitric 94,  76,  29 

Acid,  oxalic 47 

Acid,  phosphoric 97 

Acid,  picric 104 

Acid,  pyrogallic 5S 

Acid,  pyroli§:neous 47 

Acid,  salycilic 104 

Acid,  sulphuric  ...  80,  97,  7,  29.  47,  90,  92,  103,  105 

Acid,  sulphurous 97 

Acid,  tartaric  .  .  : 5^ 

Aconite 16 

Agar-agar 4S 

Agate 98 

Agave 18,  17 

Alabaster 96 

Albumen,  blood 60 

Albumen,  egg 77 

Alcohol 12,  13.  3.  5,  29,  48.  49.  53-  54 

Alcoholic  liquors 12,  13,  1  to  S,  24 

Alcohol,  wood 47 

Alder .     44 

Algarobilla 56 

Alizarine 103,  104 

Alkali 92,  12,  27,  52,  98,  103 

Alligator 63 

Alloys 82,  84,  85,  86,  88,  89 

Allspice 14 

Aloe  fiber ; 18 

Aloes 15.  49 

Alpaca 68 

Alum 88,47.55.56.61,64.67,86,97 

Alumina 86,  77 


PAGE 

Aluminium 851088 

Aluminium  bronze 86,  82 

.\Jumiuuni 85 

Alundum 86 

Alunite 88 

Amalgam 84,85 

Amaranth 46 

Amber  .    , 106 

Ambergris 70,  54 

Amethyst 98,  100 

Ammonia 47,  103,  104,  60 

Ammonium  sulphide 39 

Amphibole 90 

Andesite 101 

Angora 67,  66 

Aniline 103,  104,47,97 

Animal  products 581078,96 

Anime 49 

Anise 15 

Annatto 56,  60 

Antelope 68 

Anthracene 103,  104 

Anthracite  .    , 102,  101,  107 

Anti-friction  nietal 89 

Antimony 88,  89,  81,  85,  50 

Antipyrine , 16 

Apatite 96 

Apples  9 

Aquamarine 100 

Arbor  vit^ 37 

Areca 17 

Argentiferous  ores 84 

Argentite 84 

Argols 58,55 

Arnica 16 

Arrack 23.  24 

Arrowroot    ,    .    .   .  • 6 

Arsenic 91,85,  16 

Arsenopyrite 91 

Artificial  silk 29.  » 7 

.\safcetida 49 

Asbestos 90,  17 

Asbestus 90 

Ash 42 

Ashes 47.  92 

Asphalt 106,  98,  101,  104 

Asphaltum 106 

Asses .      59 

Azurite 82 


I N  DEX  —Continued 


PAGE 

Bacteria 9* 

Babbitt  metal °9 

Badger  .   .       •      °9 

Baking  powder S'l  '*> 

Balata 5' 

Baleen •   •     7° 

Balsams ••    4''i  SOi  35 

Bamboo 30,  2» 

Banana ...        9»  ^7 

Banana  oil 47 

Barite 9=.  »■ 

Bark  cloth '' 

Barley 3.  >2.  »3.  29 

Barvtes 9^ 

Basalt        "O' 

Bass '9 

Bassine ^9 

Basswood 3° 

Bast  fibers 19,  20.  21, 17 

78 


Bat 
Bau3cite 


;  ; 86 

Bayberry  wax 7" 

Bay  wood 45 

Bean  oil f 

Beans 7'° 

Bear •   •   •     f' 

Beaver 68.69,63 

Beche  de  nier 7t 

Bee 75.  76 

Beech 39.  47 

Beer 3.  7.  7".  9° 

Beeswax 76.  54.  106 

Bee  tree 30 

Beet  sugar °.  9^ 

Belladonna  '" 

Bell  metal  " 

Benzene  '°4,  103 

Benzine  .  .  ^°5 

Benzoic  acid  ^°4 

Benzoin 49 

Benzole     '"4 

Beryl '°° 

Betel ,•  ,;     o  '^ 

Beverages 9  to '3.  3.  4.  5.  *.  ». '».  ;3 

Bichromate  of  potash 92.°' 

Biotite '°° 

Birch 39.  47 

Birds 77.78 

Birds"  nests     77 

Bismuth °9 

Bisulphide  of  carbon 97 

Bitumen "oS.  106,  94.  >oi 

Bituminous  coal ^°~ 

Black  bean 47 

Black  lead 'o? 

Blackwood 47 

Bladder °° 

Bleaching  powder ^'t^ 

Blende ,  "i 

Blood °°'  * 

Bluefish -71 

Bluestone 9*.  °2 

Blue  vitriol ' '^l 

Boll  weevil 20 

Bolting  cloth .......     3.75 

Bone  60,  63,  64,  70,  48.  96,  97 

Bone  black ^>  8 

Bone  fat °5 

Borax 94.76 

Bornite °2 

Bort '°7 

Bowstring  hemp »= 

Boxwood 40 

Bran 3.  5.  47.  56 

Brandy ■     H 

Bra.ss '^''"^ 

Brazil  wood ■      55 

Brewing 5.  6.  7,  '3 

Brick.       87,90,100 

Brimstone 97 

Brine 93,  >o5,  J07 

Bri-stles  .   .   .   .  , •»;  a.  ^ 

Britannia  metal »2,  »»,  B9 

British  gum 1 

Broadcloth "O 

Brocade 75 

Bromelia ^9 

Bromine ^3 

Bromyrite J 


PAGE 

82,  86,  88 

6,  8,  17,  29 

29 

102 


Bronze  

Broomcorn 

Broom  root  . 
Brown  coal  .... 
Brown  hematite 
Buckwheat  , 

Buhrstone 

Building  stone  .    . 

Bullion 

Burlap 

Butter 

Butter,  cocoa 

Butterine 

Buttermilk 

Butternut 44 

Buttonball -      4° 

Button  lac 7° 


79 

6 

.     98 

.90.94 

81 

21 

59.56 

12 

60 

59 


Cacao     

Cadmium  .  .  . 
Caffeine  ... 
Calcium 

Calcium  carbide 
Calcium  sulphate 


.     89 
' 1.  12, 9 

93.  94.  95.  96.  9'.  8* 

96 

103,  104 


Calf  s  foot  jelly     60 

Calfskin 60,61 

Calico 27.  4S,  55,  5S.  60,  80 

Calomel 85 

Cambric .27 

Camel 67 

Campeche    .  ...     55 

Camphor  54.  S3.  29,  48 

Camphor,  tar  .    .        to4 

Camwood      S*' 

Canada  balsam  ....  3.5 

Canaigre .      5^ 

Candles     ....    52,  54,  23,  27,  34,  60,  70,  76,  94,  106 

Cane  rattan 3° 

Cane  sugar 8 

Caniiel  coal      t02 

Cantharides 77 

Canton  flannel  ....,-.-  .27 

Caoba     .  45 

Carabao  59 

Caramel  5 

Caraway   ...  '4 

Carbon      loi  to  108.  79 

Carbonado   .    .  ....    107 

Carbonate  of  soda  ....     86 

Carbon  bisulphide  .   .   .  97t  52 

Carbon  dioxide  .    .  90.  95.  94.  103 

Carborundum .    to8 

Cardamom .      ts 

Carnallite 92 

Carnaiiba  wax   .  76 

Carnelian 98 

Carmine       ...  .77 

Carpet 66,  21 

Cashmere     67, 66 

Cassava 7.  6 

Cassia     ...  "5 

Cassimere  66 

Cassiterite    ,  88 

Castor  beans  16 

Castoreum  69 

Cat  ...   .  68 

Catechu 57 

Catfish 71 

Catgut ^4 

Cat's  eye 9* 

Cattle 59 

Caustic  potash 92.  52.  27 

Caustic  soda 92.7.27.52,105 

Caviare 7i 

Cedar,  Alaska 36 

Cedar,  cigat-box .45 

Cedar,  Moulmein     .   .     45 

Cedar,  pencil 45.  t07 

Cedar.  Port  Orford 36 

Cedar,  red 45.  37 

Cedar.  West  Indian 45 

Cedar,  white 36.  47 

Cedro 45 

Celestite 92 

Celluloid 29,  25, 54,  70 

Cellulose 28,  29 

Cellulose,  corn  pith 4.  5 

Cement 95.  79. 98.  >«>. '?6 

Cement.  Portland .   .     87 


IV 


INDEX— Continuerf 


PAGE 

Centurj-  plant  iS,  13 

Cerarg>-nte 85 

Cereals 1  to  6 

Cerium 91 

Chalcedony 9S 

Chalcociie 82 

Chalcopvrite 82 

Chalk    " 95,64,81,96,98 

Chamois 61.  64 

Charcoal 42,  32,  38,  39,  47 

Charcoal,  bone 60 

Cheese 59,  64 

Cheesecloth 27 

Chenille 75 

Cherry 44 

Cherry  birch 39 

Chert    .....  98 

Chestnut  .   .  .    .    42, 56,  57 

Cheviot  ....  66 

Chewing  gum 51 

Chicle  .  51 

Chicory 12 

China S7,  89 

China  grass 21 

Chinchilla 68 

Chinese  coir 19 

Ciiitagong  wood 45 

Chloride  of  lime 915,93,80,20 

Chlorine 93.  96 

Chloroform 47 

Chocolate 12,  15 

Chrome 91,92,61,67,76,89 

Chrome  yellow 81 

Chromium 91,  92.  80,  55 

Chrysolite 100 

Chrysoprase   ....  9S,  100 

Chrysotile ...      90 

Cigar  bos  cedar  45 

Cigars    ....  ....      16 

Cinnabar  ...  .   -  85,  89 

Cinnamon 15 

Civet 69 

Clams 72 

Clay 87,  86,  88,  95,  98,  99,  100,  103,  106,  107 

Cloves 14 

Coal loi  to  104, 78,  79,  85,  106,  107 

Coal  gas  94 

Coal  tar  103,  104,  15,  16, 54,  55,  56,  91,  93 

Cobalt  S9.  99 

Coca 17,  16 

Cocaine 17 

Cochineal 77 

Cocoa 12 

Cocoa  butter 12 

Cocoinut 21,  9,  13,  J7,  24 

Cocobolo 46 

Cod 71 

Cod  liver  oil.  71 

Coffee II,  12 

Coir 23,  24 

Coir.  Chinese 19 

Coke 103,  104,  J06,  79,  96,  102,  J07,  loS 

Colenianite 94 

Colophony 33 

Concrete 100,  90.  94,  gS 

Condensed  milk 59 

Conglomerate 105 

Cony 69 

Copals  48,  49 

Copper  .   .  82,  81 ,  84,  85, 86,  88.  89,  99 

Copperas  So,  97 

Cop:  a 23.  24 

Coral 72,  29 

Cordovan 59,  67 

Coriander  .  15 

Cork    .   .  ........  42,  20 

Corn    .   .  4.  5.  6,  7.  13 

Corn  oil     ...  4.  5 

Corn  pith ...  4.  5 

Corn  starch      ...  4.  5 

Corn  syrup 5 

Corrosive  sublimate  , 85 

Conindu  m *•& 

Cotton 25,15,17,28,29,48,54,66 

Cotton  seeds 27 

Cotton,  silicate 90 

Cottonwood    ....  38 

Cow  hair 60,  95 

Crabs 72 

Crape "5 

Cream  of  tartar 58 


PAGE 

Creolin  .   . 104 

Creosote 47,  104 

Crepon  ■*....      75 

Crin  vegetal 29 

Crude  oil J05 

Cryolite 86,  bi 

Cuba  bast 21 

Cudbear 56 

Culm 103 

Curled  hair 59 

Curr>' 15 

Cutch ;   ....  57,  50 

Cuttle  fish ,71 

Cyanide    ....  60,81,84.^5 

Cyanogen  ...  103 

Cypress 36,  32 


Damask .  .  75 

Dammar 49 

Deer 68,63,69 

Degras 61 

DeoJar 37 

Dextrine 7,3,5.27,48,55 

liextrose   ....  7 

Dial>ase loi 

Diamond 107,  86,  100.  108 

Diatomaceous  earth 100 

Diorite loi 

Dishrag  gourd 25 

Distillation,  coal 103,  104 

Distillation,  essential  oil 53 

Distillation,  liquor 8,13,18,23 

Distillation,  mercury 85 

Distillation,  petroleum 105 

Distillation,  turpentine 33 

Distillation,  wood 47,32 

Divi  divi 56 

Dog 68.  63 

Dolomite 90 

Douglas  fir  .    .    , 35 

Down 77 

Dragon's  blood  49 

Drugs 16 

Duck 77 

Duck,  cotton 27 

Dulce 48 

Dung 56 

Dvnamite 52,  94,  100 

Dyes  .    55.  56.  15,  30,  39.  41,  57,  76,  77,  82,  91,  92,  97, 

103,  104 
Dyeing 55,56,5^,60,80,81,82,88.89,91 


Earthenware 87-Si 

Ebonite 50 

Ebony 46 

Egg  yolk.   ...  ..    77,67,56 

Eggs 77.  70 

Eiderdown 77 

Electric  seal 69 

Electro -silicon lOO 

Elephant 68 


Elm 43 

Emerald 100 

Emery 86,  99 

Eosine 103,  104, 93 

Epsom  salt 90 

Ermine 68 

Esparto 28,  29 

Essential  oils 53,  15 

Ether 47,  29 

Eucalyptus 46 

Extracts 55,  57, 61 

Extract,  meat  58,  59,  60 


Fats  and  waxes 52,  53.  54»  34 

Feather 77 

Feldspar 86,  87,  98,  loi 

Felt 66,  60.  28.  104 

Fermentation 12,  3,  8,  18,  23 

Ferro-mangane.se 80 

Fertilizer  ...    5,  28,  60,  63,  72,  78,  79,  92,  94,  95,  97, 
102,  104 

Fiber,  animal 58  to  75 

Fiber,  mineral 90 

Fiber,  vegetable 17  to  30,  32,  34. 102 

Fir 35 

Firebrick 87,90 

Fish 71,  72 


INDEX— Continued 


PAGE 

Flagstone  .  98 

Flannel 66 

Flavors 13,14,15,11,12,16,104 

Flax 19,20,17,27,28 

Flax,  New  Zealand 18,  17 

FIt-shers. 64 

Flint 98 

Floss  silk 75 

Flour 3.  67 

Flour  (barley) 3 

Flour  (bean) 7 

Fluorides S6,  96 

Fluorite .      96 

Flux 7y,  94,  96 

Foods I  to  9 

Formaldehyde 47 

Fox. 68 

Frijoles 7 

Fruits 9 

Fullers'  earth 87 

Fulminates     85 

Furs 64»  65,  68,  69 

Fusible  metal 89 

Fustic 56 


Gabbro loi 

Galena 81,84 

Galls 57.  56.  58 

Galvanized  iron 81 

Gambier 57.  5^ 

Gamboge 50 

Garban  zos 8 

Garnet 100 

Garnierite    .  .   .   .   .      8q 

Gas  ....  47 

Gas,  coal  .  .   .    103,  104 

Gas  lime   .    ,  103.  104 

Gas,  natural  loi 

Gas,  water   .  103 

Gasoline 105 

Gauze         .    ,        75 

Gelatine 48,  60,  71,  78 

Gems 100,  86,  107 

German  silver Si,  89 

Gilsonite 106 

Ginger 15 

Gingham 27 

Glauconite 95 

Glass 98,  99,  So,  81,  88,  89,  91,  92,  94,  96 

Glaze 87 

Glucose 7*  5i  4.  13.  51.  76 

^Ghie 60,  29,  48,  95,  107 

Gluten 5 

Glutinous  rice 4 

Glycerine 52.  70,  94 

Gneiss .101 

Goats 66,  67,69 

Gold 82,  84.  80,  85 

Goldbeater's  skin  60 

Grain .    .    .  i,  3.  4.  5.  6,  I3 

Granadillo   ...  ....      46 

Granite loi,  100,  88.  9S 

Grapes  ....  .   .   ,     12,  i,  7 

Grape  sugar  7,  5,  4,  8,  9.  13 

Graphite    .    .  107,  loi 

Grasses  ...  29 

Grasscloth , 21 

Grebe     77 

Greenheart 46 

Greensand 95 

Grindstone 98,99 

Grits 3,  5 

Guano 78 

Guiac 49 

Gum,  acacia  _ 48 

Gum  animoniacum 49 

<Vum.  Angola 49 

Gum  Arabic 48,  7,  27,  57 

Gum.  Barbary 48 

Gum.  British 7 

Gmtn,  Cape 48 

Gum,  cherrj' 48 

Gum,  chewing 51 

Gum,  dammar 49 

Gum,  gray 45 

(Uini.  guaiacum 49 

Gnmmi  gutti 50 

Gum.  Kauri 49 

Gum,  Loango 49 

Gum,  racsquite 48 


PAGE 

Gum,  Morocco 48 

Gum,  Muccocota 49 

Gum,  peach 48 

Gum,  red 44,  45,  46 

Gum  resins   ....  48 

Gums  and  resins  .   .   .481051,30,63 

Gum.  Senegal ...  48 

Gum,  sweet 44 

Gum  tragacanth       48 

Gum.  wattle 48,  57 

Gun  metal 82,  s8 

Gunny 21 

Gunpowder 47 

Gutta  percha 51 

Gutta  joolatong 51 

Gypsum 9^1  97 


H 


36 


Hackmatack 

Haddock 

Hair 69,  59,  60,  63,  64,  66,  67,  68,  95,  29 

Halite 92 

Hardwoods 37  to  46 

Hazel 44 

Heliotrope 98 

Hematite 78 

Hematite,  brown 79 

Hemlock 34,  35 

Hemlock  bark  ,    .    56.  57,  61 

Hemp     ....  20,  17,66 

Henequen  .  ,  ...      18 

Henna 56 

Heron 77 

Herring 7' 

Herva  Mate n 

Hickor\' 43. 45 

Hides  .' 59  to  70.  56 

Hippopotamus 68 

Hogs 63 

Holly 40 

Holothurian ji 

Hominy 5 

Honestone    ...  98 

Honey .    .  75.  76.  7 

Honeysuckle    ....  ...  46,  40 

Hops ...      13.  3 

Hornblende 101 

Horns ...  60,  66,  68,  48 

Horustone 98 

Horse -   ...      59 

Horse  hair ...   59.  29 

Hydraulic  cement    .  95 

Hydraulic  limestone  .  95 

Hj'drocarbon loi  to  106 

Hydroquinone 104 

I 

Incense 48 

India  linun      27 

Indian  corn 4.  5 

Indigo 55 

Infusorial  earth  100 

Ink 57 

Insects   ....  -    -    .    72  to  77,  57 

Insect  powder  58 

Intestines  60,  63,  64 

Iodine 93 

Iodoform   .  .  47 

Ipecac    ...  .16 

Iridium  ....  84 

Irish  moss 48 

Iron  ..   .    .78.79,80,16,55,57,81,86,87,88,90,91, 

92,  94.  95.  99.  103.  105 

Isinglass 71,  100 

Ivory ....  68,  70,  29,  60 

Ivory,  vegetable  .   .  .......     58 

Ixtle 18 


Jacaranda  . 
Jaggery  .  . 
Japan  wax 
Jar  rah  .  . 
Jasper  . 
Jet    . 

Juniper  .    , 
Jute     .    . 


.  46 
,  24,9 
.      76 


29 
.  37 
28,66 


Kainite  .  . 
Kangaroo  . 
Kaolin   .    . 


92 
63 


VI 


INDEX— Continued 


PAGE 

Kapok 28 

Kerosene 105 

Khaya ^5 

Kid 66,  67,  61 

Kiln 87 

Kino 49 

Kips 60 

Kittool 19 

Kola 17 

Koumiss 59 

Kunzite 100 

L 

Lac 76,  48,  50 

Lace  bart 21 

Lacquer 76,  50 

Laevulose 9 

Lamb 63t  64,  65,  69 

Lamp  black 50,  56,  104 

Lanccwood 46 

Lanoline 65 

Lanthanum 91 

Larch 36.  56 

Lard 63,53 

Latex 50,  5: 

Laudanum .       .   .      16 

Lead 80,81,79,82,84,88,89,98 

Lead,  black 107 

Lead,  sugar  of 47 

Lead,  white 81,  92 

Leather..   .    .  61.15,29,561072,77,88,90,92,106 

Lechuguilla 18 

Lees 58 

Legumes 8 

Lentils 8 

Leopard 68 

Licorice 16 

Lignite 102,  loi 

Lignum  \'itje 46 

Lime  .    .  94.  s,  17,  47,  56,  61,  78,  80,  87,  93,  96,  98,  103 
Limestone   .  04.  7^,  7q.  St.  Sq,  90,  96,  97, 98,  loi,  106 

Lime  tree  .    ,  38 

Limonite  ...  79,  78 

Linden   ...  38,  21,  17 

Line 20 

Linen 20,  28,  66 

Linoleum 20,  42 

Linseed 20,21,4,48,95,81,80,63,104 

Linters 27,  25 

Lin  tree 38 

Lion 68 

Litharge Si 

Lithium 91 

Lithograpliic  stone 95.  86 

Litmus '56 

Llama 68 

Lobster 72 

Locust 43 

Logwood 55 

Luffa 25,  17 

Lumber 301047 

Lycopodium 58 

Lye 52 

Lynx 68 

M 

Mace 14 

Mackerel ji 

Madder 55 

Magnesia 50 

Magnesite 90 

Magnesium 89.  90,  87,  93 

Magnetite 79,78 

Maguey \    [    ,      18 

Mahogany 44,  45,  46,  47 

Maize 4^  5 

Malachite 82 

ll^W, '■'■'.    3."  9,  13 

Maltha  .    .       106 

Maltose 3_  g 

Manganese !   !   .  80,  99 

Mangrove 57,  56 

Manila  hemp 17,  18 

Mammoth '68 

Maple '.'.','.  38,47 

Marble Q5,  90,  100,  101 

Marl -      95 

Marten 68 

Mastic 49 

Mate II 

Matte 82;  Si 


PAGE 

Mauritius  hemp 18 

Meat' 58,59.63.64.66,67,70,71,77,94 

Medicine  .    .   .16,23,48,49,50,53,54,77,88,89,91, 
93.  97 

Meerschaum 90 

Menaccanite 91 

Menhaden 72 

Menthol 54 

Mercerizing 27 

Mercury 85,  84,  16 

Merino 64,  65 

"Metal"  (glass) 99 

Metol 104 

Mexican  onj*x 95 

Mexican  whisk 29 

Mezcal 18 

jSIica 100,  loi,  71 

Mica  schist 101 

Middlings 3 

Milk 59,64,66,67 

Millet 6 

Mineral  products 78  to  108 

Mineral  wool 90 

Minium 98.81 

Mink 68,69 

Mirbane 104, 54 

Mirror 85,99 

Mohair 67 

Molasses 8, 16 

Mole r  •  -  •     68 

^Molybdenum 91 

Monazite 91 

Monkey 68 

Moonstone ;  .  .    100 

Mora 56 

Mordant 55.47.58,60,88,89,91,92 

Morocco 64,  67 

Morphine 16 

Mortar 94.95.98,63 

Moss,  Spanish 29 

Mother-of-pearl 72 

Moulmein  cedar 45 

Mucilage 7,  48 

Muck 102 

Mules 59 

Musk 69,  54 

Musk  deer 69 

Musk  rat 68,69 

Musk  ox 69 

Muslin 27 

IMuscovite 100 

Mussels 72 

Mustard 13 

Mutton 63,64 

Myrobalans 56 

Myrrh 49 

N 

Naptha 104,  105 

Napthabne 104,  105,  54 

Narcotics 16,  17 

Narwhal 68 

Natural  gas 101,99,105 

Neat's  foot  oil 60 

New  Zealand  flax] 18,  17 

Nickel 89.  80,  81 

Nitrate  of  soda 93,  94 

Nitrocellulose 29 

Nitrogen 94 

Nitroglycerine 52,94,100,105 

Novaculite 98 

Nutmeg 14 

Nutria 69,  68 

Nuts 1,53 

Nux 16 

o 

Oak 40,41,42,46,47,56,57,61 

Oakum 25 

Oats 4 

Ocher  .  .        80,  79 

Oil,  almond 53 

Oil,  bean 8,  53 

Oil.  bitter  almond 53.  W4 

Oil,  blown 52 

Oil,  boiled 20 

Oil.  cacao 12 

Oilcake 4,5,20,23,28,52 

Oil,  carbolic 104 

Oil,  castor 16,  50 

Oil,  clove 14.  15.  53 


INDEX— Continued 


Vll 


PAGE 

1,  coal 105 

I,  cocoanut 23,  53 

1,  cod  liver "i 

l.corn 4,50.  53 

1,  cotton 27,  25, 15,  50,  53 

1.  essential 53.54.  ^5.  32 


filtering 87 

1,  fish 72.  64,  56 

I,  hemp 21,53 

1,  lard 63 

1,  linseed 20,21,50,63,80,81,95,104 

1,  menhaden 72 

1,  rairbane 104.  54 

I,  mustard 13 

1,  neat's  foot 60 

1,  olive 52,  15.  27.  46 

1.  palm 53.  23.  88 

1,  peanut 53.  ^5 

1,  petroleum 105,  107 

l.pine 32,34 

I,  poppy 53 

I,  rape 53.  5*> 

1.  seal 69 

1,  sesame 53.  ^ 5 

I.  soy 53.  8 

Istone. 98 

1,  sunflower 53 

1,  train 70 

1,  turkey  red 53.  55 

1,  vitriol 80 

1.  volatile 53.  54, 15.  32.  33 

Oil, -walnut 53 

Oil  wells 105 

Oil.  whale ^o 

1.  wintergreen 53.^04 

Oleomargarine 60,  27 

Oleo  resins 48 

Olibanum 49 

Olive 46,  52,  15 

Olivine 100 

Onyx 98 

Onyx,  Mexican 95 

Opal 99.  100 

Opium 16 

Opossum 68 

Orange 9,  53 

Orange  mineral 81 

Orchilla 56 

Organzine 73 

Orpiment 91 

Orthoclase 86 

Ostrich 77 

Otter 68,  69 

Oxalate 47 

Oxvgen 80 

Oyster 72 

Ozocerite 106 


Padauk 46 

Paddy    .       6 

Palm 6,9,13,17,19,21,23,24 

Palmetto 19.  I7,  56.  57,  95 

Palm  oil 53.  23,  88 

Palmyra  fiber 19 

Panama  straw 29 

Pandanus 18 

Panther 68 

Paper  .  .    .28,  5,  6,  7,  17,  19,  20,  21,  27,  29,  34,  35,  38, 
60,  76,  80,  87,  88,  90,  92,  94,  96,  97,  100,  104,  106 

Paper,  raulberrj* 21 

Paper,  tar 47 

Paper,  waxed 54 

Papier-mache 29 

Paraffine 106,51,54,76 

Parchment 64 

Paris  green 9* 

Peanut  oil 15 

Pearl .      72 

Pearl  barley 3 

Peas 8 

Peat 102,  loi 

Pecan 43 

Pela  wax 76 

Pepsin 60 

Pepper 13 

Perfumes 53.  54,  104 

Pernambuco  w^ood 55 

Persian  berries 56 

Petrolatum 105 

Petroleum 105,88,97,101,106,107 


PAGE 

Pewter 81,85,88,89 

Pheasant 77 

Phenol 104 

Phlogopite 100 

Phosphates 97.  95.  78 

Phosphate  rock 96,97 

Phosphor  bronze 82 

Phosphorus 96,  97, 78 

Piassaba 19 

Pig 63 

Pigeons 77 

Pig  iron 79 

Pigments  .  .   .   .   80,  81,  82, 85,  89,  90,  91,  92,  95, 107 

Pimento 14 

Pina 18 

Pine 31  to  34,  47 

Pineapple 9,  18,  19 

Pine,  ginger 36 

Pine,  Oregon 35 

Pine,  Swiss 35 

Pinon 31 

Pistachio    , 15 

Pita iS 

Pitch 34,32,47,104 

Pitch  mineral 106 

Plane 39 

Plaster 96,19,60,88,100 

Plaster  of  paris 96 

Platinum 84 

Plumbago 107 

Plumes 77 

Plush 21,  75,  66,  69 

Polybasite 84 

Pongee 75 

Pop-corn 4 

Poplar.  Carolina 38,  28 

Poplar,  tulip 37 

Poppy 16 

Porcelain .87,88,89 

Porcupine  wood 23,  24 

Pork 63 

Porphyry loi 

Porpoise 70,  63 

Portland  cement 95.8? 

Potash  or  potassium  .   .  92,47,38,55,58,60,61,65 
84.  S^,  86,  SS,  89,  91,  95,  98 

Potassium  bichromate 92,  61 

Potassium  cyanide 84 

Potato 6,  7 

Pottery 87,  86,  94,  98 

Poultry 77 

Prase 98 

Prima  Vera 46 

Printer's  ink 20 

Prussian  blue 80 

Psilomelane .80 

Pulque 18,  13 

Pumice 108,  52,  64 

Purple  heart 46 

Putty 95.  76 

P>'rarg^rite 84 

P>Tethfum 58 

Pyrite 80,  97,  89,  J03 

Pyrolusite 80 

P>-rrhotite 89 

Q 

Quartz 98.  99.  87.  100,  loi 

Quartzite 98 

Quebracho 57.  5O1  56 

Quercitron 56,  41 

Quicklime 94 

Quicksilver 85 

Quills 77 

Quinine 16 

R 

Rabbit 69 

Raccoon 68 

Radium 91 

Ramie 21,  17 

Raphia 19,  17 

Rat 63 

Rattan 29,  30,  17 

Rawhide 60 

Raw  silk 73 

Realgar 91 

Red  cedar 45 

Red  gum 46 

Red  lead 81 

Redwood 35.  46 


INDEX— Continued 


PAGE 

Reeds 29 

Reindeer 68 

Rennet 60 

Resins  .   .   .   .48.49.50.33.32.28,30,48,54,76.93, 
105,  106 

Rhea .    .      7^ 

Rhinestone  .    ,  .    .    .      u^^ 

Rhubarb  ...  16 

Rice ...  4.  5.  6.  13,  28,  29 

Roans 64 

Rochelle  salts ,5^ 

Rock  asphalt     ifJ'J 

Rock  crs'stal y'^ 

Rock  flfnt 9^ 

Rock  wool 9"^' 

Roots 2g 

Rose  oil 4*^ 

Rosewood 46 

Rosin 33.32.50.52 

Roltt-n  stone ^oS 

Rouge So,  56,  99 

Rubber 50.  4,  20,  29,  48,  89,  97,  104,  105 

Ruby 86,  100 

Rule  boxwood 46 

Rum 8,  13 

Rushes 29 

Rutile 91 

Rye     3.  13.  29 


Sable  .  .  . 
Saccharine 
Safflower  , 
Saffron  .    .    . 


68 
104 


92,  52,  61,  64,  67,  71,  87, 


Sake   .   . 
Salmon  . 
Salt  ..... 
Saltpeter  .    . 

Salycilic  acid 

Saniarskite 

Sand 98,99,52,79,87,94,106,107, 

Sandarack 

Sandstone   ...  ...    98,101,105, 

Sappan  

Sapphire  ...  86, 

Sardine 

Sardonyx  ...  

Sarsaparilla    .  i5i 

Satin 

Satin  wood 

Savin 

Sawdust 47. 

Saw  palmetto 

Scarlet  lake 

Schappe  silk 

Sea  cucumber 

Sea  grass  

Seal 69, 


5^ 
6 

.  13 
-I 
96 

94 
104 

91 
loS 

49 
106 

56 
100 


Sealing  wax ... 

Sea  lion 

Sea  otter  ...  

Sea  weeds  ... 
Seed  lac  ... 
Seidlitz  powder 

Sepia ... 

Sepiolite 

Serj^e 

Serpentine 90 

Serum 

Sesame  oil 53 

Shad 


Shale 87.  101,  105,  106 

Sheep  .      -.   -. 63  to  66,  60.  69 

Sheep  dip ^^'  S^ 

Sheet  iron    . 88 

Shellac 76,  50 

Shell  fish 72 

Shells 72,94,95,101 

Shoddy 66 

Siderite 79i  78 

Sienna 80 

Silesia 27 

Silica 98,99.78,87.95,100.108 

Silk 72  to  75,  17,  29,  48,  66 

Silk,  artificial ^9' 25 

Silk  cotton 28,  17 

Silver     84,85,81,82,93 

Sisal  hemp 18 

Size 60 


Skins 56,  90,  91,  94 

Skins  (see  Hides) 

Skivers 64 

Skunk oS 

Slack 103 

Slag 79.  90.  95 

Slate 103 

Smalt 89 

Snails 72 

Snake     .   .  .  63 

Snuff 16 

Soap  .   .   .  52,21,23,27,32,34,60,65,81,92,94.98. 

100,  104 

Soap  bark 58 

Soapberries 58 

Soapstone 90 

Soda 92,55.87,94.97.  105 

Soda  ash 92,  86,  93,  98 

Soda  carbonate 86 

Soda  niter 93.  94 

Soda  water 90,  95 

Sodium 92,  55,  56,  61,  86,  91,  94,  98 

Softwoods 30  to  ^7 

.Solder 81,34,88 

Sole 71 

Sorghum 6,  8 

Soy  beans 7 

Spanish  moss 29^  '7 

Spelter Si 

Spermaceti ....  70.  54 

Sphalerite , 81 

Spices 13,  14,  15,  104 

Spiegel  eisen So 

Spinel 100 

Spirits  {see  Alcohol) 

Split  bamboo 30 

Split  rattan 30 

Splits 61,64 

Sponge 70 

Sponge,  vegetable 25 

Spruce   . 34.  28 

Spruce.  Douglas 35 

Spun  silk 75 

Squirrel 68 

Starch 3.4.5.6,8,12,27,55,56 

Stassfurt  salts 92 

Stearine 63,  76 

Steatite 90 

Steel .79,80,86,89,91,92,98 

Stephanite 84 

Stibnite 8S 

Sticklac 76 

Stimulants 16,  i 

Stoneware 87 

Storax 50 

Strass • 99 

Straw 3,  6,  17,  28,  29,  47 

Stroiitianite 92 

Strontium 92 

Sturgeon 71 

Sugar.   .   .   .    8,3,6,7,12,13,23,60,63,77,92,104 

Sugar  corn 4 

Sugar,  maple 38 

Sugar  of  lead 47 

Sugar  of  milk • 59.  9 

Suint .     65 

Sulphate  of  calcium :  .  ...    104 

Sulphonal 47 

Sulphur    .    .    .97,20,50,78,80,81,82,84,85,89,91, 

ici.  103 

Sulphuric  acid So,  97,  7,  29,  47 

Sumac  . 57. 56, 67 

Sunn  hemp 21 

Swallows 78 

Sweet  gum 44 

Swifts 7S 

Swine 63 

Sycamore 39 

Sycamore  maple 39 


Talc 90,  28 

Tallow.   . 59.60,61,64,66,34,54,88 

Tallow,  vegetable 53 

Tamarack 36 

Tampico  hemp 18 

Tans  and  tanning   .   .   .56,57,58,61,62,15,19,23, 
30,  39.  40,  41,  42,  55,  88,  92 

Tapestry 66 

Tapioca 7,  6 


INDEX— Continued 


Tar 47.  25.  30.  32 

Tar  camphor 104,  54 

Tar  (see  Coal  Tar) 

Tar  paper 47 

Tar  mineral 106 

Tartar  emetic 58,  89 

Tartaric  acid 58 

Tartrates 58 

Tasar  silk 75 

Tawing 67,  77 

Tea 9,  u,  12 

Tea,  Paraguay ir 

Teak 45 

Teasels 58 

Tellurides 82 

Terne  plate 79i  81 

Terra  cotta 87 

Terra  japonica 57 

Thorium 91 

Thrown  silk 73 

Tiger 68 

Tiger's  eye 98 

Tile ; 87,  94,  99 

Tin 88,55,77,79,81.82 

Tincal 94 

Tin  foil     88 

Tin  plate 88 

Titanium 91 

Tobacco I5i  J6 

Toddy. 23,  24,  13 

Toluene 104 

Tonka  beans 15 

Topaz 100 

Tortoise 70 

Tortoiseishell 70,  29 

Touchstone  .  .       98 

Tourmaline 100 

Tow 20 

Tragacanth 48 

Train  oil 70 

Tram  silk 73 

Trap loi 

Trees  .   , 30  to  47 

Trepang 71 

Tripoli  . 100 

Tuba ; 23,  13 

Tufa- 95 

Tulip  poplar 37 

Tulip  wood 46 

Tungsten 91 

Turf 102 

Turkeys 77 

Turmeric 15,  56 

Turnsole 56 

Turpentine  .  33,  32,  48,  49.  5°.  53.  7^.  80,  81,  104,  105 

Turquois 100 

Turtle 70 

Tussah  silk 75 

Tungsten 80 

Twigs 29 

Type  metal  ....  81.  88,  89 

U 

Uititahite 106 

Umber 80 

Uranium 91 


Valonia 57i  56 

Vanadium 91 

Vanilla 14,  16,  12 

Vanilla  extract 104 

Vanillon 15 

Varnish 48,  51,  20,  56,  61,  76,  104,  106,  loS 

Vaseline 105 

Vegetable  ivory 58 

Vegetable  products I  to  58,  101  to  107 

Vegetables 9»  23 

Vegetable  silk 28 

Vegetable  sponge 25 

Velvet 21,  66 

Vellum 61 

Verd  antique 90 

Vermillion 46,  85 

Vetch 8 

Vicuna 63 

Vinegar 23.  24 


Vinegar,  wood 47 

Violet  extract '  104 

Vitriol,  blue 97 

Vitriol,  green  .  ... .   .    .  So 

Vodka 3 

Volatile  oil 33 

Vulcanite !.!]!!!!!!  50 


w 

Wahoo 38,  43 

Walnut ."    .      44 

Walrus 68,  63 

Washing  clay 87 

Washing  gold [     82 

Washing  graphite '.    107 

Waste,  cotton 27 

Wastes 48 

Waste,  silk 75 

Waste,  woolen 66 

Wattle  bark 57.  56 

Was       52.  53.  54.  75.  76 

Wax,  bayberry 54 

Wax,  bee 76 

Wax.carnauba 54 

Wax,  Chinese 54 

Wax,  grafting 54 

Wax,  insect 54 

Wax,  Japan 54.  50 

Wax,  myrtleberry 54 

Wax,  paraffine io5,  54 

Wax,  pela 54 

Wax,  sealing 54 

Wax,  shoemaker's 54 

Wax,  sperm 70 

Weak  fish ' .  .     ji 

Weasel ...     68 

Whale .   .  70.  63 

Wheat I.  6.  29,  97 

Wheat  straw 28 

Whetstone 98 

White  lead 81,  92 

White  of  egg 77 

WTiite  metal 85.  83,  89 

Whitewash .95 

WTiitewood : .    .  37.  38 

Whiting 95 

Whiskey 3.  5.  ^3 

Wildcat 68 

Wild  silk 75 

Willow 29 

Willow  bark 56 

Wine 12,  58.  60,  71 

Wine,  kola 17 

Wine,  palm "  .    19.  23 

Witch  hazel 54 

Wolf 68 

Wolverine 68 

Wood      .   .    30  to  47.  23.  24,  29.  54,  55,  56,  57,  88,  92. 
102,  104,  106,  108 

Wood  alcohol 47 

Wood,  distillation ;  47,  80 

Wood,  petrified 98 

Wood  pulp 28,  29,  90,  100 

Wood  \'inegar 47 

Wool 641068,17,88,92 

Woolen 58,  77,  87 

Wool  fat 65 

Wool,  mineral 90 

Wool,  pine 32,34 

Worsted 66 


Yamamai  silk 

Vaxci 

Yeast 

Yellow  berries 
Yellow  wood  . 
Y'erba  mate  .  . 

Yolk 

Young  fustic  . 
Yttrium  .... 
Yucca 


75 
18 


56 


65.  77.  67 
56 
91 
18 


Zacaton 29 

Zinc 81,79.82,84.89 


I 


\ 


; 


I 


v^ 


KJOUi. 


D     000  329  594 


